Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Theobroma cacao L.; cocoa

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

n

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

n

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

y

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

y

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

n

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

n

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

4

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

y

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

-5

Source

Notes

1.01

no evidence

1.02

no evidence

1.03

no evidence

2.01

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/var/apache/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?101885 (03 February 2002)

Native Distributional range:
Northern America: Mexico [s.]
Southern America: Belize; Brazil [n.w.]; Colombia; French Guiana; Guatemala; Guyana; Peru; Suriname

2.02

2.03

It is usually below 300 m, but in sheltered valleys of Colombia at 900 m. It requires uniformly high temperatures with a mean of 26.6°C A hot and humid atmosphere is essential for the optimum development of cocoa trees.

2.04

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/var/apache/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?101885 (03 February 2002)

2.05

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/var/apache/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?101885 (03 February 2002)

widely cultivated

3.01

no evidence

3.02

no evidence

3.03

no evidence

3.04

no evidence

3.05

no evidence

4.01

4.02

no evidence

4.03

no evidence

4.04

Abdul Latief, T.; Johana, C. L. (1994) Feeding cocoa leaf to Kacang goat. Djajanegara, A.; Sukmawati, A. eds. Sustainable animal production and the environment. Proceedings of the 7th AAAP Animal Science Congress, Bali Indonesia, 11-16 July 1994. Volume 3: poster papers., 1994, pp.195-196, 3 ref.

[relatively low intake, high mortality but more weight gain] AB: "Three groups of 8 young female Kacang goats (8.33 kg) were randomly allotted to one of the following ad libitum feeding treatments: fresh cocoa leaf (CL), natural grasses (NG) or a combination of CL and NG. Each goat also received a mixture of rice bran, coconut meal, molasses, mineral mix and salt (200 g/day). During the 4-month experimental period, mean DM intake/day was lower in the CL group than in NG and CL + NG groups (0.153 vs. 0.271 and 0.259 kg, respectively). However, the mean body weight of goats in the CL group was significantly higher than those of the other 2 groups (10.66 vs. 9.43 and 9.82 kg, respectively). Overall mean daily gains in CL, NG and CL + NG groups, respectively, were 16.45, 14.64 and 13.35 g. During the experimental period 5 goats died in group CL, while only 2 died in each of the other groups. In group CL, serum contents of protein, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, copper, selenium, molybdenum and cobalt

4.05

Drolet, R.; Arendt, T. D.; Stowe, C. M. (1984) Cacao bean shell poisoning in a dog. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 1984, Vol.185, No.8, p.902, 11 ref.

AB: A dog developed restlessness and excitement within 8 hours after eating cacao bean shells sold for horticultural use. Thirst, diarrhoea, vomiting and the passing of red urine ensued. The dog died in convulsions at 17 hours. The theobromine content of the shells was 0.46%. There were no characteristic lesions.

4.06

(1) United States Department of Agriculture (1981) New continental United States record. Plant Pest News, 1981, Vol.1, No.1, pp.1-2, 2 ref.
(2) Wood, G. A. (1980) The cocoa pod borer - a menace to South East Asia. Cocoa Growers' Bulletin, 1980, No.30, pp.25-27, 2 ref.
AU: Chowdappa, P. (2000) Diseases of cocoa and their management. Dasgupta, M. K. ed. Diseases of plantation crops, spices, betelvine and mulberry, 2000, pp.77-83.

ONLY A MINOR PEST: (1) AB: Morganella longispina (Morg.), which is known as a minor pest of citrus in Brazil and China and has been reported from Hawaii, Puerto Rico, various parts of South America, the Caribbean, the South Pacific, Asia, Africa and Australia, is recorded for the first time in the continental USA, where it was found in October 1980 on Nerium oleander at Miami in Florida. A list is given of the economic food-plants of M. longispina recorded in countries other than the USA, which include (as well as oleander and citrus), peach, plum, almond, mulberry, several tropical and subtropical fruit trees, and cacao.
PEST OF COCAO ONLY: (2) AB: Acrocercops cramerellus (Sn.) is a very important pest of cacao in the Philippines and parts of Indonesia. It has recently been reported from Sabah.
PESTS OF COCAO ONLY OR GENERALIST: (3) AB: Of the many pathogens causing diseases of cocoa, only a few are important and Phytophthora spp. are the major pathogens affecting cocoa yield worldwide.

4.07

no evidence

4.08

no evidence

4.09

Anim-Kwapong, G. J.; Teklehaimanot, Z. (2001) Albizia zygia (DC) Macbride, a shade tree for cocoa. The effects of duration of acid scarification and substrate acidity on the germination of seeds. Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 2001, Vol.11, No.1, pp.47-55, 29 ref.

AB: "Albizia zygia is an indigenous West African tree species used to provide shade for cocoa."

4.1

International cocoa organization (2000) <http://www.icco.org/questions/soil.htm> 2)http://www.ecoport.org/

Physical properties - Cocoa needs a soil containing coarse particles to leave free space for roots and with a reasonable quantity of nutrients to a depth of 1.5m to allow the development of a good root system. Below that level it is desirable not to have impermeable material so that excess water can drain away. Cocoa will withstand waterlogging for short periods but excess water should not linger. The cocoa tree is sensitive to a lack of water so the soil must have both water retention properties and good drainage. This is difficult to achieve but a composition of 50% sand, 30%-40% clay and 10%-20% silt would be suitable. Soil for cocoa growing must be looked at in relation to the level of rainfall, if the rainfall levels are high a sandy soil with less water retention may be suitable, but such a soil would not be suitable if rainfall is low.
Chemical properties - The chemical properties of the topsoil are the most important as there are a large number of roots here for absorbing nutrients. Cocoa can grow i

4.11

tree

4.12

no evidence

5.01

terrestrial tree

5.02

tree

5.03

no evidence

5.04

tree

6.01

no evidence

6.02

Keshavachandran, R.; Nair, P. C. S. (1985) Standardisation of seed propagation in cocoa. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut & Spices Journal, 1985, Vol.9, No.1, pp.1-4, 2 ref.

AB: In trials with Forastero cocoa, large and medium pods (>350 g with not less than 400 cm3 volume) had larger seeds than small pods. Germination percentage was not affected by pod size or seed position in the pod but was highest for March (94.5) followed by February sowing (85.58). The largest size of sowing bag tested (30x20 cm) was the most suitable. A potting mixture of soil, sand and FYM at 1:1:2 gave the best vegetative growth. It is suggested that seedlings for planting out should have not less than 10 leaves and should be not less than 30 cm high at 3 months.

6.03

Martinson, V. A. (1972) Embryological studies on hybridization between Theobroma cacao and Theobroma grandiflora. Canadian Journal of Botany, 1972, Vol.50, No.11, pp.2117-2124, 20 ref.

AB: Embryo development was studied in Th. cacao 'U6' X Th. cacao'K5/353' and in U6 X Th. grandiflora 'T33'. The development of the embryo sac as described by previous authors was confirmed. Growth of the pollen tube through the style was slightly quicker in intraspecific than in interspecific crosses. The major blockage in interspecific hybridization occurred subsequent to fertilization, and in most instances, well after the proembryo stage. Possible causes of abnormal seed formation in the interspecific cross are discussed. Delayed pollination (up to 48 h after anthesis) in U6 X K5/353 produced seedlings with characteristics of both parents. However, the occasional enlargement and the binucleate appearance of egg cells in unpollinated flowers indicated a tendency towards parthenogenesis. (Artificial hybridization only)

6.04

(1)Jacob, V. J.; Atanda, O. A. (1975) Compatibility and fruit setting in Theobroma cacao L. Revista Theobroma, 1975, Vol.5, No.2, pp.12-18, 12 ref.
(2) Rajamony, L.; Mohanakumaran, N. (1995) Studies on the floral biology of cocoa. Planter, 1995, Vol.71, No.828, pp.119-127, 18 ref.
(3) Hasenstein, K. H.; Zavada, M. S. (2001) Auxin modification of the incompatibility response in Theobroma cacao . Physiologia Plantarum, 2001, Vol.112, No.1, pp.113-118, 21 ref.

(1)AB: Controlled hand pollination of 23 WACRI 'C' clones, comprising seven local Ghanaian selections and 16 Amazon selections (T types) made from Trinidad introductions, was carried out and assessment of compatibility was made; only two clones, C26 and C73, were self compatible. Mean percentage flower retention after two weeks (35%) and pod yield (2%) were lower in the local selections than in the Amazon selections (41% flower retention and 12% pod yield) when the clones were used as female parents, but when they were used as male parents the trend was reversed. C22, a local selection, was the best male parent (55.7% fruit set and 25.7% pod yield) and C57, an Amazon selection, was the best female parent (58.2% fruit set and 18.2% pod yield).
(2) AB: Flower-bud development in 10-year-old cocoa plants (natural Criollo-Forastero hybrids) was a slow process, taking 21-24 days for a newly emerged flower to mature. Anthesis commenced between 14.00 and 16.00 h and was completed between 02.00 and 04.00 h

6.05

(1) Massaux, F.; Tchiendji, C.; Misse, C. (1976) Study of cacao pollen dispersal by 32P labelling. [FT: Etude du transport du pollen de cacaoyer par marquage au 32P. ] Cafe, Cacao, The, 1976, Vol.20, No.3, pp.163-172, 14 ref.
(2)Kaufmann, T. (1975) Ecology and behavior of cocoa pollinating Ceratopogonidae in Ghana, W. Africa. Environmental Entomology, 1975, Vol.4, No.2, pp.347-351, 10 ref.
(3) Winder, J. A. (1978) Cocoa flower Diptera; their identity, pollinating activity and breeding sites. PANS, 1978, Vol.24, No.1, pp.5-18, (unpaginated) 72 ref.
AB: The Diptera, including ceratopogonids (especially Forcipomyia spp., Dasyhelea spp., Culicoides spp., Stilobezzia spp., Ceratopogon spp. and Atrichopogon spp.), cecidomyiids, psychodids, sphaerocerids and Drosophila spp., associated with cacao flowers throughout the world, and their pollinating activity and known breeding sites are reviewed, and the disadvantages of using cages for assessing pollinating potential are discussed.

(1) AB: Two cacao pollen labelling techniques are described. Under natural conditions pollen dispersal was most intense at 0800 and 1700 h; its distribution decreased slightly with increasing height up to 6 m but was not affected by orientation. Wind played a negligible part, whereas over 25 spp. of insects were observed carrying pollen and potentially able to ensure cross-fertilization.
(2) AB: Close spacing of shade trees with large buttresses and a variety of ground substrates are essential to attract pollinating Ceratopogonids to cacao plantations. The midges breed throughout the year in Ghana, but their numbers fluctuate monthly as well as yearly according to the amount of rain. The most favourable weather for flight is under cloud cover. Different species have different sex ratios which can be determined only by breeding a large number of individuals.Loose batches of eggs are deposited in concealed recesses of moist, decomposing plant debris, as larvae feed on fungi that grow on these media.

6.06

no evidence

6.07

© National Confectioners Association/Chocolate Manufacturers Association (2000) Growing Theobroma cacao <http://www.chocolatevalley.com/basics/grow.htm> 

"With pruning and careful cultivation, the trees of most strains will begin bearing fruit in the fifth year. With extreme care, some strains can be induced to yield good crops in the third and fourth years."

7.01

no evidence

7.02

AB: Amerindian coastal shipping along the Pacific coast of America has been neglected for the dispersal of pre-Columbus crop plants up to now. Indians of the Valdivia Culture and their successors travelled by boat or raft along the coasts from their west Ecuadorian home to Peru and Middle America since 2200 BC and to Southern Mexico since 1450 BC. The travelling ceased with the arrival of Spaniards in 1526. Presumably crop plant export occurred from western Ecuador to Peru and Middle America (sweet manioc, Annona cherimola, Carica papaya , early great-grained corn) and Mexico (tobacco). On the other hand the pre-Columbus crops (Persea americana, Capsicum annuum ) evolved in Mexico were brought to western Ecuador and neighbouring northern Peru. Shipment by sea would be faster and thus more successful than the time consuming transportation by land all the way through Colombia and Central America. For sweet manioc, only shipment of living cuttings appears as a feasible explanation. Similarly one may hypothesize

7.03

no evidence

7.04

large fruit

7.05

no evidence

7.06

AB: "The main species damaged by birds were cocoa, Spondias cytherea [S. dulcis ], mangoes and oranges, and the main bird pests were the rufous-vented chachalaca (Ortalis ruficauda ), the orange-winged parrot (Amazona amazonica ), the crested oropendola (Psarocolius decumanus ) and the red-crowned woodpecker (Melanerpes rubricapillus ). "

7.07

red squirrel Sciurus granatensis (Humboldt) is both seed preditor and dispersor.

7.08

bird dispersal

8.01

CHOCOLATE; Theobroma cacao <http://www.chocolate.org/choctree.html>

" The cacao tree produces flowers and fruit year-round. The cacao tree is small and comes from the forests of Central and South America. It needs a warm and humid climate, regular rainfall as well as a fertile and well-irrigated soil. It grows in the shade, preferably at an altitude of 1,300 to 2,300 feet, in the tropics 20° above and below the equator. The cacao tree yields its first crop at 3-4 years old. It is an adult plant at 10. It produces from 300 to 1,000 pounds of cocoa per acre for about 50 years. The cacao tree fruit is a huge berry called cacao pod, usually egg or melon-shaped, 5 to 12 inches long and 3 to 5 inches wide. The cacao pod contains 30 to 40 seeds. It takes 20 to 25 pods to get 2 pounds of cocoa. Once the tree reaches maturity, fruit pods will sprout from its trunk and branches. The golden-red to purple fruit pods turn brown at maturity, at which time they are split open and the insides scooped out. Each pod generally produces 20 to 40 almond-shaped cacao beans. " [average 650 pound/ha

8.02

Figueiredo, S. F. L. (1986) Preservation of cocoa seed viability. IV. Effect of fungicides and pelleting. [ FT: Conservação da viabilidade da semente de cacau. IV. Efeitos de fungicidas e peletização.] Revista Theobroma, 1986, Vol.16, No.4, pp.173-188, 30 ref.

AB: Seeds from almost-ripe fruits of the cv. Comum were used in all treatments. The seeds, with or without integuments, were treated with 7 fungicides or pelleted with diluted gum arabic and stored in polyethylene bags at 25 deg C for up to 100 days. The seeds were tested for viability every 10 days. In general, seeds without integuments gave significantly higher germination than those with integuments. The highest germination (100 and 87% after 80 and 90 days, respectively) was obtained from seeds treated with the fungicide Neantina Seco BR. Maximum germination in the control seeds was 53% after 10 days, and nil after 20 days. It was concluded that fungi (Aspergillus, Rhizopus and Penicillium spp.) were responsible for seed deterioration.

8.03

Nivia, E.; Gips, J. 1993. Drug control and herbicide spraying in Colombia.
Global Pesticide Campaigner, , Vol.3, No.1, p.14 2) ereira, R. C.; Marcondes, D. A. S.; Fontes, J. L.; Chehata, A. N.; Geraldo, E. R. 1980. Effect of post-em. herbicides in cocoa crops. Resumos XIII Congresso Brasileiro de Herbicidas e Ervas Daninhas, Bahia, pp.30-31

the use of glyphosate in marajuana and coca [Erythroxylum coca ] eradication was halted after damage to coffee, cocoa 2)Treatments containing glyphosate killed the apical buds of the cocoa plants.

8.04

no evidence

8.05

http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/horticulture/6222.html

when cocoa is introduced into a new area a previously unrecorded pest almost invariably attacks it