Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Terminalia catappa

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

y

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

n

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

4

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

y

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

n

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

Source

Notes

1.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Major variation exists in T. catappa for a range of economically important nut characteristics, as a result of selection for desirable traits, e.g. for large fruits/kernels and ease of cracking, and propagation by village people in various parts of its range. (variety selection rather than breeding)

1.02

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

It is naturalised in Florida, USA, and Puerto Rico (Morton, 1985). In Hawaii, the species was introduced very early, probably before 1800, and is now naturalized at low altitudes, mainly near beach shores (Little and Skolmen, 1989).

1.03

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

no evidence

2.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

25N-30S

2.02

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.03

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

T. catappa is well-adapted to maritime subtropical and tropical climates. Rainfall, generally in the range 1000 to 3500 mm, may be distributed rather uniformly or with a summer maximum. T. catappa is invariably found near the coast, at less than 300-400 m altitude, although it may occasionally occur up to 800 m (Sosef et al., 1995). Sites with little seasonal variation in temperature are preferred. In the Philippines, it is adapted to a temperature range of 22° to 32°C (Uriarte, 1994). The entire range is frost-free. T. catappa is moderately drought-resistant and can endure a dry season of up to 5-6 months. When the roots reach the water-table, T. catappa requires less rainfall and can thus survive longer drought.

2.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

T. catappa has a very wide natural distribution in near-coastal areas of the Indian Ocean, through tropical Asia and into the Pacific.

2.05

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

T. catappa is widely distributed in the Philippines, Papua New Guinea and Polynesia, and has been widely planted throughout the Tropics, including West and East Africa (Streets, 1962; Morton, 1985), Brazil (Paschoal and Galetti, 1995), Central and South America and the Caribbean (Heinsleigh and Holaway, 1988; Sosef et al., 1995). It is naturalised in Florida, USA, and Puerto Rico (Morton, 1985). In Hawaii, the species was introduced very early, probably before 1800, and is now naturalized at low altitudes, mainly near beach shores (Little and Skolmen, 1989).

3.01

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

It is naturalised in Florida, USA, and Puerto Rico (Morton, 1985). In Hawaii, the species was introduced very early, probably before 1800, and is now naturalized at low altitudes, mainly near beach shores (Little and Skolmen, 1989).

3.02

no evidence

3.03

no evidence

3.04

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. 2)http://www.fleppc.org/99list.htm

T. catappa naturalizes readily in suitable littoral habitats, and may be regarded as a potential weed threat to native plant communities. 2) Florida EPPC Category II environmental weed

3.05

http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/list/t.htm

itself was listed

4.01

Wagner et al. 1990 Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. P.547

4.02

Taide YB, Babu LC, Abraham CC, 1994. Influence of host species in the initial growth and development of sandal (Santalum album Linn.). Indian-Journal-of-Forestry. 1994, publ. 1995, 17: 4, 288-292; 8 ref.

Sandal is known to grow vigorously in association with certain preferred host plants. Pot experiments on the influence of 15 host plants on the initial growth and development of sandal are described here. Casuarina equisetifolia was the most suitable host, followed by Terminalia catappa , Albizia lebbeck , Dalbergia latifolia and Pongamia glabra [P. pinnata] . Emblica officinalis [Phyllanthus emblica], Ailanthus malabarica [A. triphysa], Cassia siamea, Delonix regia and Psidium guajava were not favourable for sandal growth. The other species tested were Leucaena leucocephala, Lagerstroemia speciosa, Swietenia mahagoni, Acacia auriculiformis and Azadirachta indica . Some combinations had synergistic effects while others showed allelopathic effects.

4.03

Wagner et al. 1990 Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. P.547

4.04

Rekhate DH, Honmode J, 1983. Studies on forage vegetations with reference to selective grazing in sheep. Transactions of Indian Society of Desert Technology and University Centre of Desert Studies, 8(2):72-75; 9 ref.; Ikhimioya I, Olagunju BO, 1996. Chemical composition of selected green plants available to small ruminants in the dry season in humid Nigeria. Tropicultura. 1996, 14: 3, 115-117; 15 ref.

The preference of sheep for different fodders was determined by 3 methods. Sheep relished velvet bean [Mucuna deeringiana ] and oats among fodder crops and grasses, and Leucaena leucocephala and Sesbania grandiflora among shrubs. Leaves of Terminalia catappa were palatable to ewes, Bauhinia variegata to rams and Ficus virens to lambs.

4.05

Rekhate DH, Honmode J, 1983. Studies on forage vegetations with reference to selective grazing in sheep. Transactions of Indian Society of Desert Technology and University Centre of Desert Studies, 8(2):72-75; 9 ref.; Ikhimioya I, Olagunju BO, 1996. Chemical composition of selected green plants available to small ruminants in the dry season in humid Nigeria. Tropicultura. 1996, 14: 3, 115-117; 15 ref.

Terminalia catappa were palatable to ewes

4.06

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.Chen ,C.C. & Y.J. Dong 2000. Attraction of the oriental fruit fly (Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae), to leaf extracts of five plants. Chinese Journal of Entomology, 2000, Vol.20, No.1, pp.37-44

Ethyl ether extracts of Annona montana, Artabotrys uncinatus [Artabotrys hexapetalus ], Cassia fistula, Garcinia dulcis , and Terminalia catappa attracted the Oriental fruit fly (Bactrocera dorsalis ) with more females than males captured in all tests. These extracts also stimulated flies to lay eggs in yellow plastic balls.-- Relevance to natural conditions unknown.

4.07

no evidence

4.08

no evidence, likely low flammability

4.09

(1) CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2) Wang HsiangHua; Kuo YauLun; Pan ShunYung 1997. Effects of canopy opening on seed germination among twenty species of uplifted coral-reef forest trees at Kenting, Taiwan. Taiwan Journal of Forest Science, 1997, Vol.12, No.3, pp.299-307, 23 ref.

(1)tolerate shade (2) Seeds of the remaining 6 species (Ilex rotunda, Macaranga tanarius, Celtis formosana, Melanolepis multiglandulosa, Terminalia catappa and Leea guineensis ) did not germinate while placed in the forest understorey but began rapid germination when moved to the nursery opening.

4.1

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

All high pH / coastal type soils. Soil types: sandy soils; saline soils; alkaline soils; alluvial soils; calcareous soils; limestone soils

4.11

Wagner et al. 1990. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. P.547

4.12

personal observation

5.01

Wagner et al. 1990. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. P.547

5.02

Wagner et al. 1990. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. P.547

5.03

Wagner et al. 1990 Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. P.547

5.04

Wagner et al. 1990 Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. P.547

6.01

no evidence

6.02

Prins H, Maghembe JA, Maghembe JA, 1994. Germination studies on seed of fruit trees indigenous to Malawi. Special Issue: Agroforestry research in the African miombo ecozone. Proceedings of a regional conference on agroforestry research in the African miombo ecozone held in Lilongwe, Malawi, 16-22 June 1991. Forest-Ecology-and-Management. 1994, 64: 2-3, 111-125; 17 ref.; Lanting, MV Jr 1982. Germination of talisai (Terminalia catappa Linn.)Sylvatrop : the seeds. Philippine forest research journal. Jan/Mar 1982. v. 7 (1) p. 27-34

abstract

6.03

no evidence

6.04

6.05

guess from morphology

6.06

Wagner et al. 1990 Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. P.547

6.07

CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

T. catappa should be highly amenable to breeding programmes, given the high level of variation in nut characteristics and the young age, about 3-4 years, at which plants flower and fruit, and accessibility of flowers for controlled pollination, although the latter are small and crowded.

7.01

propagule too large

7.02

Wagner et al. 1990 Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. P.547

widely planted in tropical region for shade and its edible seeds

7.03

propagule too large

7.04

Wagner et al. 1990 Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. P.547

7.05

Nakanishi H, 1989. Dispersal ecology of the maritime plants in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan. Ecological Research, 3(2):163-173; 12 ref.; Green PT, 1999. Greta's garbo: stranded seeds and fruits from Greta Beach, Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. Journal-of-Biogeography. 1999, 26: 5, 937-946; 45 ref.

The tree species were Calophyllum inophyllum, Clerodendron inerme, Guettarda speciosa, Hernandia sonora, Messerschmidia [Argusia ] argentea, Pandanus odoratissimus, Pongamia pinnata, Sophora tomentosa, Terminalia catappa and Thespesia populnea. The structure and size of all species, disseminules and their buoyancy and viability in seawater were examined in the laboratory. The disseminules were morphologically adapted for buoyancy and tests showed that the species could be dispersed by sea currents. Disseminules on the drift line and seedlings on the high tide line, and young plants of woody species within the herbaceous coastal zone were all observed at sites along the coast. The Kuroshio Current carries the disseminules from islands where the species form part of the tropical coastal vegetation typical of the region.

7.06

Wagner et al. 1990 Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. P.547

7.07

Elangovan, V.; Marimuthu, G.; Kunz, T. H. 1999. Temporal patterns of individual and group foraging behaviour in the short-nosed fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx , in south India. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 1999, Vol.15, No.5, pp.681-687, 13 ref.

fruit bat

7.08

too large to consume?

8.01

Oni, O1985. Sex ratio and fruit set in Terminalia catappa Research paper. Forest series,-0331-6793 ; no. 62 7 p. : ill. ; 30 cm; Linn / O. Oni and M.O. Adedire; Reza FA, Horelano Moncada Y, 1987. Terminalia cattapa (Combretaceae) fruits on the ground at Parque Nacional Cahuita, eastern Costa Rica. Tropical-Ecology. 1987, 28: 2, 259-263; 6 ref.

8.02

Wang HsiangHua; Kuo YauLun; Pan ShunYung 1997. Effects of canopy opening on seed germination among twenty species of uplifted coral-reef forest trees at Kenting, Taiwan. Taiwan Journal of Forest Science, 1997, Vol.12, No.3, pp.299-307, 23 ref.

Seeds of the remaining 6 species (Ilex rotunda, Macaranga tanarius, Celtis formosana, Melanolepis multiglandulosa, Terminalia catappa and Leea guineensis ) did not germinate while placed in the forest understorey but began rapid germination when moved to the nursery opening.

8.03

8.04

8.05

no evidence