Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Tectona grandis; Indian Oak, Teak

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

n

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

n

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

y

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

n

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

5

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

-5

Source

Notes

1.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"In India, attempts to improve the planting stock genetically were initiated in 1961 with selection of a few plus trees (Venkatesh et al., 1986) based on a programme formulated by the Government of India (Kedharnath and Mathews, 1962). Since then about 1000 plus trees have been selected in India and clonal seed orchards covering 1000 hectares have been established (Kumaravelu, 1993). Selection of superior teak phenotypes from India for raising clonal seed orchards was based on 20 characters among which were height, girth, length of clear bole, stem form (buttressing, twisting, and tapering), epicormic branching, pest and disease susceptibility and seed production."

1.02

no evidence

1.03

no evidence

2.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"T. grandis is indigenous to the South Asian and the South-East Asian region. It grows naturally between latitudes of 9°N to 25°30'N in most of peninsular India, large areas of Myanmar, and parts of Laos and Thailand (White, 1991)."--Forestry Compendium: Geographic Dist. "T. grandis is tolerant of a wide range of climates but grows best in warm, moderately moist tropical conditions (Kadambi, 1972)."--Forestry Compendium: Env. Amplitude

2.02

2.03

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"T. grandis is tolerant of a wide range of climates but grows best in warm, moderately moist tropical conditions (Kadambi, 1972)." "T. grandis tolerates a wide variation in temperatures, which range from 0°C (Chinese Academy of Forestry, 1992) to 48°C (Troup, 1921), but the optimum range is between 16°C and 40°C. T. grandis also extends into regions that experience slight frost (Kadambi, 1972; White, 1991)."

2.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"T. grandis is indigenous to the South Asian and the South-East Asian region. It grows naturally between latitudes of 9°N to 25°30'N in most of peninsular India, large areas of Myanmar, and parts of Laos and Thailand (White, 1991)."--Forestry Compendium: Geographic Dist.

2.05

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"T. grandis has been widely planted both within and beyond its natural range. In Africa, it is a major exotic species planted for sawlogs. It is widespread in Central and South America and in the Pacific. Long established plantations now extend from 28°N to 18°S (Rao, 1997), in South-East Asia (Bangaladesh, Cambodia, Nepal, Pakistan, Japan, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Vietnam), the Pacific (Australia, Fiji Islands, U.S. Pacific Islands), East Africa (Kenya, Malawi, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe), West Africa (Benin, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Senegal, Togo), South Africa, the Carribbean Islands (Cuba, Honduras, Jamaica, Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico, West Indies), South America (Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Surinam, Venezuela) and Central America (Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador) (Tewari, 1992)."--Forestry Compendium: Geographic Distr.

3.01

no evidence

3.02

no evidence

3.03

no evidence

3.04

no evidence

3.05

no evidence

4.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

no discription of these traits

4.02

(1) Jadhav, B. B.; Gaynar, D. G. (1994) Effect of Tectona grandis (L.) leaf leachates on rice and cowpea. Allelopathy Journal, 1994, Vol.1, No.1, pp.66-69, 8 ref.
(2) Sadhna Tripathi; Ashutosh Tripathi; Kori, D. C. (1999) Allelopathic evaluation of Tectona grandis leaf, root and soil aqueous extracts on soybean. Indian Journal of Forestry, 1999, Vol.22, No.4, pp.366-374, 15 ref.

[LAB only, not field] (1) AB: The effects of extracts of dried powdered leaves of Tectona grandis made over 4-24 h were tested on the germination and seedling growth of rice (Oryza sativa ) and cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata ). Germination was significantly reduced in the early stages (at 3 days) but less so later (at 11 days). The inhibition increased progressively with leaf powder soaking time, and cowpeas were more sensitive than rice. Plumule and radicle growth in rice were both inhibited by leachate and the inhibition increased progressively with soaking time. However, in cowpeas, plumule growth was more inhibited than radicle growth, and radicle growth was actually stimulated by short-soaking-time leachates.
(2) AB: The allelopathic activity of Tectona grandis (which has been reported to have no adverse effects on crop growth in agrosilvicultural systems over 1-2 yr) was studied in bioassays on the germination, seedling growth, nodulation, and chemical and biochemical parameters of soyabean seeds/seed

4.03

no evidence

4.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"T.grandis is not as readily browsed or grazed as most of its associate species. However, heavy browsing can break soft, young shoots (Kadambi, 1972). It suffers from injury by various mammals such as rat, pig, deer and bison. The worst offender is the elephant which can ruin teak plantations (Kadambi, 1972)."--(Forestry Compendium: Silvicultural Characteristics)

4.05

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"T.grandis is not as readily browsed or grazed as most of its associate species. However, heavy browsing can break soft, young shoots (Kadambi, 1972). It suffers from injury by various mammals such as rat, pig, deer and bison. The worst offender is the elephant which can ruin teak plantations (Kadambi, 1972)."--(Forestry Compendium: Silvicultural Characteristics)

4.06

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"Over 180 species of insects are reported to be associated with teak (Mathur, 1960; Mathur and Singh, 1960). Most of them are minor pests. Those which cause serious damage are white grubs in nurseries, sapling borer in young plantations, trunk borer in older plantations and two species of defoliators (Beeson, 1941; Sen Sarma and Thapa, 1981; Day et al., 1994)."

4.07

(1) Simatupang, M. H.; Yamamoto, K.(2000) Properties of teakwood (Tectona grandis L. F.) and mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) from manmade forest and influence on utilization. JIRCAS Working Report, 2000, No.16, pp.103-114, 39 ref.

(2) AB: "The less desirable property of teak, its ability to induce allergic contact dermatitis, is mainly due to deoxylapachol and to a lesser extent to lapachol. "

4.08

(1) Suwannaratana, S. (1999) Comparison of teak and pine plantations in northern Thailand. Comparison of teak and pine plantations in northern Thailand, 1999, xv + 135 pp., 9 pp. of ref. A thesis.
(2) Sakurai, S.; Cruz, L. U. de la (1993) Growth of trees planted in degraded forest land. JARQ, Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly, 1993, Vol.27, No.1, pp.61-69, 8 ref.

(1) AB: "In terms of ground flora and soil properties, the teak plantations represented a greater ecological benefit to the area than the pine plantations, and with increasing age, plantation ground flora communities become more similar to that of the natural forest. However, the presence of Imperata cylindrica in the 50-yr-old teak plantation suggests that the community is developing into a more fire-resistant one, due to annual disturbances caused by burning. " [man-made burning]
(2) AB: "Yemane and teak (Tectona grandis ) were fire-tolerant species"

4.09

(1) CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. Effect of shade on seedling growth of Grevillea robusta , Tectona grandis and Ailanthus triphysa in the nursery.
(2) Saju, P. U.; Gopikumar, K.; Asokan, P. K.; Ani, J. R. (2000) Effect of shade on seedling growth of Grevillea robusta , Tectona grandis and Ailanthus triphysa in the nursery. Indian Forester, 2000, Vol.126, No.1, pp.57-61, 3 ref.
(3)http://www.frim.gov.my/HLadang/SPECIES/TEAK/TEAK.HTM

(1) "T. grandis is a pronounced light-demander, intolerant of shade and requiring complete overhead light."--(Forestry Compendium: Silvicultural Characteristics)
(2) AB: "An investigation on the effect of shade on growth of polybag seedlings of Tectona grandis , Grevillea robusta and Ailanthus triphysa was carried out at College of Forestry, Vellanikkara (Kerala, India). The two levels of shade tested were full sun (0%), and 75% shade from placing the seedlings below the trees in a rubber plantation; the full sun seedlings were placed in the open area outside the plantation. For Tectona grandis and Grevillea robusta seedlings, growth performance was better in full sunlight than in shade, with height, diameter, leaf area, leaf size, root weight, shoot weight, leaf weight and chlorophyll content all higher under full sunlight. " (3)T.grandis is a light demanding species

4.1

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"It establishes well on a variety of geological formations and soils (Seth and Khan, 1958) but it is recorded as growing best on deep, porous, fertile well-drained alluvial soils with a neutral or acid pH (Kadambi, 1972). Weaver's 1993 review indicates that the species will tolerate wide extremes of soils so long as they are adequately drained."--(Forestry Compendium: Environmental Amplitude)

4.11

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

tree

4.12

no evidence

5.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

terrestrial tree

5.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

tree; Verbenaceae

5.03

no evidence

5.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

tree

6.01

no evidence

6.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"The viability of its fruit varies from 40-85%."--(Forestry Compendium: Silvicultural Characteristics)

6.03

no dicussion

6.04

(1) Tangmitcharoen, S.; Owens, J. N. (1996) Floral biology, pollination and pollen-tube growth in relation to low fruit production of teak (Tectona grandis Linn. f.) in Thailand. Tree improvement for sustainable tropical forestry. QFRI-IUFRO Conference, Caloundra, Queensland, Australia, 27 October-1 November 1996. Volume 1., 1996, pp.265-270, 33 ref.
(2) Palupi, E. R.; Owens, J. N. (1997) Pollination, fertilization, and embryogenesis of teak (Tectona grandis L.f.). International Journal of Plant Sciences, 1997, Vol.158, No.3, pp.259-273, 40 ref.

(1) The majority of pollen tubes grow through the style but some do not grow from the style towards the embryo sacs. Late-acting gametophytic self-incompatibility, or post-zygotic abortion probably are the causes of high early fruit abortion.
(2) Fertilized pistils may abort during fruit development and maturation. The major cause of fruit abortion is abnormal development of the endosperm. During early stages of development this caused the zygote to abort, whereas in later stages, it restricted embryo development, resulting in seed abortion. Failure in endosperm development may result from a high incidence of self-pollination.

6.05

(1)Tangmitcharoen, S.; Owens, J. N. (1996) Floral biology, pollination and pollen-tube growth in relation to low fruit production of teak (Tectona grandis Linn. f.) in Thailand. Tree improvement for sustainable tropical forestry. QFRI-IUFRO Conference, Caloundra, Queensland, Australia, 27 October-1 November 1996. Volume 1., 1996, pp.265-270, 33 ref. (2)http://www.frim.gov.my/HLadang/SPECIES/TEAK/TEAK.HTM

(1) AB: "The major pollinators are Ceratina spp." [carpenter bees] (2) Insects such as wasps, bees, flies, bugs, and beetles are found to pollinate the flowers. Heriades parvula and Ceratina hieroglyphica are the important pollinators of teak in Thailand (Hedegart 1975).

6.06

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"It does not produce root suckers (Tewari, 1992)."--(Forestry Compendium: Silvicultural Characteristics)

6.07

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"Seed production in T. grandis generally commences after the fifth year."--Forestry Compendium: Silvicultural Charact.)

7.01

no evidence

7.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"T. grandis is the principal timber tree of peninsular India, Myanmar, Indonesia and Thailand and one of the most valuable timbers in the world."--(Forestry Compendium: Importance)

7.03

large seed, 9-18 mm in diameter

7.04

no evidence

7.05

http://www.frim.gov.my/HLadang/SPECIES/TEAK/TEAK.HTM

The trees attain large sizes on well-drained alluvial flats along streams or river banks [drupe floats?]

7.06

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)Bell, H. L. 1979. The effects on rain-forest birds of plantings of teak, Tectona grandis, in Papua New Guinea. Australian Wildlife Research, 6:305-318. (3)Rahman, M. M.; Baksha, M. W.; Sterringa, J. T. 1993. Ethological observations of the purple sunbird (Nectarinia asiatica Latham): a mistletoe-frequenting bird. Indian Forester, , Vol.119, No.5, pp.388-394

althrough fruit is a drupe, no evidence of bird feeding; seeds are collected in the ground in seed orchard. [calyx is persistent on fruit, again suggesting not bird dispersed; fruit hairy, brown (not typical bird syndrome)] (2)A main food resource in teak was the teak moth (Hyblaea puera); birds were noted that ate the larvae or pupae. [not noted to eat the fruit]. Rats ate teak fruit. (3)purple sunbirds reported to eat the fruit (??)

7.07

Bell, H. L. 1979. The effects on rain-forest birds of plantings of teak, Tectona grandis, in Papua New Guinea. Australian Wildlife Research, 6:305-318.

Rats ate teak fruit. [but dispersal not reported]

7.08

no evidence

8.01

(1) Nagarajan, B.; Mohan Varghese; Nicodemus, A.; Sashidharan, K. R.; Bennet, S. S. R.; Kannan, C. S. (1996) Reproductive biology of teak and its implication in tree improvement. Tree improvement for sustainable tropical forestry. QFRI-IUFRO Conference, Caloundra, Queensland, Australia, 27 October-1 November 1996. Volume 1., 1996, pp.244-248, 31 ref.
(2) Indira, E. P.; Basha, S. C.; Chacko, K. C. (2000) Effect of seed size grading on the germination and growth of teak (Tectona grandis ) seedlings. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 2000, Vol.12, No.1, pp.21-27, 8 ref.

(1) AB: Under open-pollination, fruit set was less than 1% in both breeding and natural populations. Teak panicles have units of 15 flowers arranged in compound dichasia. The first position flowers in the dichasia showed increased fruit set, fruit weight and diameter and seed filled compared with flowers at other positions.
(2) AB: It was observed that most fruits belonged to the 9-12 mm grade and that 98% of the total seeds were of size from 9 mm up to 18 mm and more. The nursery experiments showed that fruit size did not have any influence on seedling survival and growth. However, fruits of <9 mm diameter had a low germination percentage, leading to fewer seedlings. [large seeds and low fruit set]

8.02

(1) Gupta, B. N.; Pattanath, P. G. (1975) Factors affecting germination behaviour of Teak seeds of eighteen Indian origins. Indian Forester, 1975, Vol.101, No.10, pp.584-588 + 2 tbl., 15 ref.
(2) Parvez Jalil (1994) Effect of storage containers on the viability of Tectona grandis seeds from different provenances of Madhya Pradesh. Vaniki Sandesh, 1994, Vol.18, No.4, pp.32-37, 3 ref. (3) Staines, H. J.; Nashatul Zaimah, N. A.; Marzalina, M.; Benson, E. E.; Krishnapillay, B. 1999. Using Taguchi experimental design for developing cryopreservation strategies for recalcitrant seeds. IUFRO Seed Symposium 1998 "Recalcitrant seeds": Proceedings of the Conference, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 12-15 October 1998. pp.270-279.

(1) AB: Reports trials of four treatments - (1) control, (2) soaking in water for 24 hours, washing and drying before sowing, (3) soaking in Sachs nutrient solution for 4 hours and drying, and (4) removing the mesocarp but leaving the endocarp intact - on the emergence of seedlings from fruits of Tectona grandis collected from 18 sources in six states in India. The average numbers of seedlings per 100 fruits produced in two years are tabulated. Seed from seven sources did not germinate. Treatment with nutrient solution increased seedling production by 6 to 53%; soaking in water also increased seedling production. It is concluded that nutrient imbalance, presence of a water-soluble germination inhibitor in the mesocarp, and a requirement for after-ripening may be causes of dormancy in Teak.
(2) AB: Germination data collected after storage periods of 1 and 6 months, and 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 years, showed that seeds retained viability for longer and germinated better when stored in air-tight metal containers rat

8.03

(1)Mbakwe, H. N. 1977. Effect of asulam, dalapon and 2,4-D on the morphology of three months old teak seedlings. Research Paper (Forest Series), Nigeria, No.37, 12 pp. (2) Ghosh, S. K.; Balasunderan, M.; Ali, M. I. M. 1982. Chemical control of Dendrophthoe falcata on teak through trunk injection: a preliminary field study. Current Science 51:11-19 (1119?).

(1)2,4-D killed three months old teak seedlings (2)Injected CuSO4 and 2,4-D were toxic to 32-yr-old trees

8.04

Forestry Compendium

"It has remarkable fire resisting power. Young plants recover from fire as the root system survives and finally produces a permanent shoot which survives fire (Kadambi, 1972)."--(Forestry Compendium: Silvicultural Charact.) "It is susceptible to frost damage but it has such remarkable powers of coppicing that if a frost-bitten plant is cut back, it may send up a shoot which often gets above frost level and survives (Kadambi, 1972)."--(Forestry Compendium: Silvicultural Charact.)

8.05

no evidence