Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Tamarindus indica; tamarind

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

n

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

6

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

-3

Source

Notes

1.01

no evidence

1.02

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)Long, R. W., and O. Lakela. 1971, A flora of tropical Florida. Miami, University of Miami Press. (3)Adams, C. D. 1972, Flowering plants of Jamaica. Mona, University of the West Indies.

(1)"T. indica is generally believed to be indigenous to the drier savannas of tropical Africa. It has become naturalized in tropical Asia." (2)Naturalized in Florida (3)naturalized in Jamaica

1.03

no evidence

2.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Review of natural distribution
T. indica is generally believed to be indigenous to the drier savannas of tropical Africa. It has become naturalized in tropical Asia.
Natural latitude range
Approximate limits north to south: 30°N to 8°S
Vegetation types:
dry forests; savannas
List of countries with natural populations
Asia: Bangladesh
India, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal
[Indonesia], Irian Jaya, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Sumatra
Malaysia Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak
Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam
Africa, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe
Caribbean
Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico
Central America Costa Rica

2.02

2.03

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.winrock.org/forestry/FACTPUB/AIS_web/AIS17.html (3)Adams, C. D. 1972, Flowering plants of Jamaica. Mona, University of the West Indies.

Approximate limits north to south: 30°N to 8°S
Climate:
T. indica is well-adapted to semi-arid and arid regions. It is essentially a tree of tropical climatic areas, tolerating temperatures up to 47º C but very sensitive to frost. However, old trees are more resistant to cold than young trees. Rainfall should be evenly distributed, with a mean annual rainfall of 500-1500 mm required for growth. The tree can grow with 350 mm of annual rainfall if irrigated during the time of establishment. In the wet tropics, with over 4000 mm of rainfall, T. indica does not flower and fruit development is adversely affected. In India, it is not found in regions with more than 1900 mm rainfall (Troup and Joshi, 1983). Pre-monsoonal drought also affects growth (Troup and Joshi, 1983).
Descriptors
- Altitude range: 0 - 1500 m
- Mean annual rainfall: 350 - 2700 mm
- Rainfall regime: summer; bimodal
- Dry season duration: 0 - 3 months
- Mean annual temperature: 20 - 33ºC
- Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 3

2.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

T. indica is generally believed to be indigenous to the drier savannas of tropical Africa. It has become naturalized in tropical Asia.
Natural latitude range: Approximate limits north to south: 30°N to 8°S

2.05

(1) USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.
(2) CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

(1) present in USA: Florida, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands
(2) Location of introductions: It is believed that T. indica was introduced into India at an early date and subsequently spread into other tropical Asian regions (Troup and Joshi, 1983). It has now widespread throughout semi-arid tropical Africa and South Asia. It is cultivated in home gardens, on farmlands, along roadsides and on common lands in most tropical countries, and up to a plantation scale in India. It is economically important throughout South and South-East Asia (Purseglove 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991).

3.01

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)Long, R. W., and O. Lakela. 1971, A flora of tropical Florida. Miami, University of Miami Press. (3)Adams, C. D. 1972, Flowering plants of Jamaica. Mona, University of the West Indies.

(1)"T. indica is generally believed to be indigenous to the drier savannas of tropical Africa. It has become naturalized in tropical Asia." (2)Naturalized in Florida (3)naturalized in Jamaica

3.02

no evidence

3.03

no evidence

3.04

http://cgsc.biology.yale.edu/precolog.html

Home garden tree of Puerto Rico [Not a naturalized component of forest]

3.05

no evidence

4.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"T. indica is a large evergreen tree up to 30 m tall, and with a diameter of up to 2 m. It has a spreading, compact, rounded crown, up to 12 m in diameter. The trunk is short fissured, greyish-brown, with thick, wide-spreading branches."

4.02

Jacob John; Nair, A. M.(1999) Preliminary investigations on the allelopathic influence of leaf litter of certain multipurpose trees. Indian Journal of Forestry, 1999, Vol.22, No.1/2, pp.66-69, 9 ref.

AB: Preliminary laboratory experiments were conducted to study the allelopathic influence of the leaf litter of 7 multipurpose tree species (Acacia auriculiformis, Casuarina equisetifolia, Albizia lebbeck, Leucaena leucocephala, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Mangifera indica and Tamarindus indicus ) commonly grown in home gardens in Kerala (India) on 2 test crops (rice and cowpeas). Leaf litter of all the species significantly inhibited germination and growth of rice. Radicle growth of cowpeas was also suppressed by all the tree species, while cowpea germination was not inhibited by Artocarpus and Mangifera . The inhibitory effects of Tamarindus and Acacia were generally relatively greater than those of the other species. Response indices revealed that the inhibition of radicle and plumule growth was more pronounced than that of germination. [LAB ONLY, no evidence from nature]

4.03

no evidence

4.04

(1) Kaitho, R. J.; Umunna, N. N.; Nsahlai, I. V.; Tamminga, S.; Bruchem, J. van; Hanson, J.; Wouw, M. van de (1996) Palatability of multipurpose tree species: effect of species and length of study on intake and relative palatability by sheep. Agroforestry Systems, 1996, Vol.33, No.3, pp.249-261, 24 ref.
(2) CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

(1) AB: " Using mean palatability index (days 2-12), the MPTs were grouped into 4 clusters. MPTs such as Leucaena leucocephala and Sesbania sesban which are known to have good nutritive value had high palatability. In the same classification group, there were less well known species such as Acacia venosa, Acacia persiciflora, Acacia melanoxylon, Acacia hockii, Acacia polyacantha, Tamarindus indica, Chamaecytisus palmensis, Tipuana tipu, Indigofera arrecta and Atriplex nummularia. Flemingia macrophylla, Erythrina abyssinica, Acacia salicina, Acacia coriacea, Albizia schimperana, Ceratonia siliqua, Casuarina glauca and Erythrina burana had poor palatability. These species seem to have little forage value for animals with short-term adaptation periods. Gliricidia sepium and Calliandra calothyrsus , although currently being used by farmers, had only a medium palatability ranking. "
(2) "They may be lopped for high-quality livestock fodder. "

4.05

(1) Kaitho, R. J.; Umunna, N. N.; Nsahlai, I. V.; Tamminga, S.; Bruchem, J. van; Hanson, J.; Wouw, M. van de (1996) Palatability of multipurpose tree species: effect of species and length of study on intake and relative palatability by sheep. Agroforestry Systems, 1996, Vol.33, No.3, pp.249-261, 24 ref.
(2) CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

(1) AB: " Using mean palatability index (days 2-12), the MPTs were grouped into 4 clusters. MPTs such as Leucaena leucocephala and Sesbania sesban which are known to have good nutritive value had high palatability. In the same classification group, there were less well known species such as Acacia venosa, Acacia persiciflora, Acacia melanoxylon, Acacia hockii, Acacia polyacantha, Tamarindus indica, Chamaecytisus palmensis, Tipuana tipu, Indigofera arrecta and Atriplex nummularia. Flemingia macrophylla, Erythrina abyssinica, Acacia salicina, Acacia coriacea, Albizia schimperana, Ceratonia siliqua, Casuarina glauca and Erythrina burana had poor palatability. These species seem to have little forage value for animals with short-term adaptation periods. Gliricidia sepium and Calliandra calothyrsus , although currently being used by farmers, had only a medium palatability ranking. "
(2) "They may be lopped for high-quality livestock fodder. "

4.06

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

[generalist or not serious pests] T. indica trees are under potential attack by more than 40 insect species (Singh and Ahmed, 1989). These include shothole borers, toy beetles, leaf-feeding caterpillars, bagworms, mealy bugs and scale insects (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). The sap-suckers are the worst pests, affecting the young shoots and fresh foliage. The most destructive of these are coccids, aphids, white flies and thrips (Singh and Ahmed, 1989). In some seasons, fruit borers can cause serious damage to fruit, resulting in a great reduction in economic returns.
Several diseases have been reported in India which cause tree rots and bacterial leaf-spots (Troup and Joshi, 1983).
Pests recorded
Insect pests:: Acaudaleyrodes rhachipora, Aonidiella orientalis, Cajunus indica, Chalioides vitrea, Drosicha stebbingi, Eumeta crameri, Euproctis scintillans, Haplothrips tenuipennis, Kerria lacca, Myllocerus blandus, Myllocerus discolor, Myllocerus viridanus, Nipaecoccus viridis, Otinotus oneratus, Oxyrhachis tarandus, Perissopne

4.07

no evidence

4.08

http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5327e/x5327e1m.htm

It is used also as a firebreak

4.09

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://hort.ifas.ufl.edu/trees/TAMINDA.pdf

(1)it is a light-demander and grows best in the open (2)full sun

4.1

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

T. indica can be grown on a wide range of soils from gravelly to deep alluvial. However, it thrives best in loamy, deep, alluvial soils which favour the development of a long taproot (Troup and Joshi, 1983). It also tolerates slightly alkaline or saline soils (Hocking, 1993). The soil should be well-drained, as T. indica does not tolerate waterlogged soils. In Africa, T. indica is reported to grow near termite mounds, which may indicate its preference for well-aerated soils.
Descriptors
- Soil texture: medium; heavy
- Soil drainage: free
- Soil reaction: neutral; alkaline
- Special soil tolerances: infertile
- Soil types: acid soils; alfisols; alkaline soils; alluvial soils; cambisols; clay soils; ferralsols; grassland soils; gravelly soils; lateritic soils; limestone soils; regosols; saline soils; silty soils; subtropical soils; tropical soils; ultisols; vertisols; volcanic soils

4.11

tree

4.12

no evidence

5.01

terrestrial

5.02

tree; Fabaceae

5.03

(1)Natural abundance of 15N (15N) was analysed in leaves harvested from tropical plants in Brazil and Thailand. The 15N values of non-N2-fixing trees in Brazil were +4.5 plus or minus 1.9%, which is lower than those of soil nitrogen (+8.0 plus or minus 2.2%). In contrast, Mimosa pudica and Pueraria humbergiana had very low 15N values (-1.4 plus or minus 0.5%). The 15N values of Panicum maximum and leguminous trees (except for Leucaena leucocephala ) were similar to those of non-N2-fixing trees, suggesting that the contribution of fixed N in these plants is negligible. The 15N values of non-N2-fixing trees in Thailand were +4.9 plus or minus 2.0%. Leucaena leucocephala, Sesbania grandiflora, Casuarina spp. and Cycas spp. had low 15N values, close to the value of atmospheric N2 (o/oo), pointing to a major contribution of N2 fixation in these plants. Cassia spp. and Tamarindus indica had high 15N values, which confirms that these species are non-nodulating legumes. The 15N values of Acacia spp. and Gliricidia se

5.04

tree

6.01

no evidence

6.02

AB: Seed emergence behaviour and early seedling growth were studied in three geographically diverse populations of T. indica from the Sudan. The Central Sudan (CS) and the Eastern Sudan (ES) populations exhibited a nearly threefold variation between the largest and smallest seeds, whereas the Western Sudan (WS) population showed about twofold variation. Seed size was largest for WS (0.55 plus or minus 0.09 g), intermediate for CS (0.48 plus or minus 0.08 g) and smallest for ES (0.43 plus or minus 0.11 g). Tamarind seeds are generally slow to germinate as indicated by the allowance of 15 to 42 days from planting before the first and the last emergence count, respectively. Even though differences were not significant, the highest total percent emergence (97%) was recorded for WS population, followed by CS (92%) and ES (90%) populations. Seeds of the WS population achieved E50 (days to 50% emergence) two and three days earlier than ES and CS, respectively. They also showed more uniform emergence with a span of

6.03

http://www.winrock.org/forestry/FACTPUB/AIS_web/AIS17.html

monotypic genus

6.04

(1)Nagarajan, B.; Nicodemus, A.; Mandal, A. K.; Verma, R. K.; Gireesan, K.; Mahadevan, N. P. (1998) Phenology and controlled pollination studies in tamarind. Silvae Genetica, 1998, Vol.47, No.5/6, pp.237-241, 24 ref. (2)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

(1) "Reproductive biology and breeding system were studied in five tamarind (Tamarindus indica ) clones. Considerable vegetative and reproductive phenological variations were observed. Flowers showed strong entomophilous adaptations, open pollination fruit set was between 1% to 2%. Controlled pollinations indicate that tamarind is a predominantly outcrossing species with extremely low level of selfing, apomixis was absent." (2)self-pollination results in seeded pods (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).

6.05

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"The flowers produce nectar and are probably pollinated by insects; self-pollination results in seeded pods (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). Usha and Bhupinder Singh (1996) reported that cross-pollination results in higher fruit set and retention in T. indica."

6.06

no evidence

6.07

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/tamarind.html

(1)"Trees in open areas bear fruit after about 10-12 years and continue for 200 years or so." (2)Seedlings should begin to produce fruit in 6 - 8 years

7.01

no evidence

7.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

" It is cultivated in home gardens, on farmlands, along roadsides and on common lands in most tropical countries, and up to a plantation scale in India."

7.03

no evidence

7.04

no evidence

7.05

no evidence

7.06

http://www.mayaparadise.com/plantse.htm

indehiscent (remaining closed at maturity), [sitcky pods consumed by grazers]

7.07

no evidence

7.08

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"Natural regeneration of T. indica is aided by animals such as monkeys and gazelles, which eat the fruit and disperse the seeds."

8.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Pods usually curved, oblong, 5-10 cm long by 2 cm wide, constricted, scurfy, brown with brittle shell, 1-10 seeded, indehiscent. Seeds up to 18 mm long, reddish-brown, joined together with tough fibres running through the brown sticky pulp which surrounds the seeds (Purseglove, 1987). Well grown trees of 20 years are known to have an annual yield of 200 kg/tree. Annual yields up to 170 kg/tree have been reported in India and in Sri Lanka for large trees.The National Academy of Sciences (1979) indicates that an adult tree yields 12-16 tons per hectare. In the Philippines, 200-300 pods per tree is considered a good yield (Verheij and Coronel, 1991).

8.02

(1) Parameswari, K.; Srimathi, P.; Malarkodi, K. (2001) Standardisation of dormancy breaking treatment in tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) seeds. Legume Research, 2001, Vol.24, No.1, pp.60-62, 8 ref.
(2) CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (3)http://www.winrock.org/forestry/FACTPUB/AIS_web/AIS17.html (4)http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/tamarind.html

AB: Twelve different dry and wet scarification methods were evaluated for breaking the physical dormancy of tamarind seeds, collected from Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India during May 1998. Among the treatments, scarification with sulfuric acid at 200 ml/kg for 15 minutes increased seed germination (67.21%) and reduced the incidence of abnormal seedlings (9.95%) and hard seed (0%). In general, the said treatment recorded the highest values for all seed quality parameters, i.e. root length (26.0 cm), hypocotyl length (15.0 cm), shoot length (28.0), dry matter production (282 mg per 10 seedlings) and vigour index (4616).
(2) The seeds retain viability for about 6 months. Germination rates are about 65-75%. No seed pre-treatment is usually required. However, according to Sankaranarayanan et al. (1994), seed germination can be accelerated by soaking in 10% cow urine or cow dung solution (500 g in 10 litres) for 24 hours. Germination was seen to increase from 37% for untreated seed to 73% with cow urine and 83% wit

8.03

no evidence

8.04

(1)Maêda, J. M.; Moraes, M. (1994) The behaviour of different forest and fruit tree species in relation to the presence of fire.[FT: O comportamento de diferentes espécies florestais/frutíferas em relação à presença do fogo.] Floresta e Ambiente, 1994, No.1, pp.162-167 (2)http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5327e/x5327e1m.htm

(1) Preliminary data are presented from a study of the mortality and regeneration (shoot production and growth) of 5 species 5 months after an accidental fire in June 1993, at Serra do Madureira, in Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil. The species were Inga sp., Leucaena leucocephala , Tamarindus indica , Tabebuia serratifolia and Caesalpinia ferrea . Mortality was 16.6% in the last 2 species, but zero in the first 3. The best shoot regeneration was in L. leucocephala . The other 4 species produced many fewer shoots, although differences in shoot length were not so large between the 5 species. (2)It is known to coppice

8.05

no evidence