Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)
RISK ASSESSMENT RESULTS: High risk, score: 11
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Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai‘i. Information on Risk Assessments Original risk assessment |
| Sesbania sesban (sesban) (Egyptian riverhemp) Family- Fabaceae Synonyms - Aeschynomene sesban L., Emerus sesban (L.) Kuntze, Sesban aegyptiaca Poiret, Sesbania aegyptiaca Poiret, Sesbania confaloniana (Chiov.) Chiov., Sesbania pubescens sensu auct | Answer | Score | |
| 1.01 | Is the species highly domesticated? | n | 0 |
| 1.02 | Has the species become naturalized where grown? | y | |
| 1.03 | Does the species have weedy races? | n | |
| 2.01 | Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical” | 2 | |
| 2.02 | Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2 | 1 | |
| 2.03 | Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility) | y | 1 |
| 2.04 | Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates | y | 1 |
| 2.05 | Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2 | y | |
| 3.01 | Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05 | y | 1.5 |
| 3.02 | Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2) | n | 0 |
| 3.03 | Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2) | n | 0 |
| 3.04 | Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2) | n | 0 |
| 3.05 | Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2) | y | 1.5 |
| 4.01 | Produces spines, thorns or burrs | n | 0 |
| 4.02 | Allelopathic | n | 0 |
| 4.03 | Parasitic | n | 0 |
| 4.04 | Unpalatable to grazing animals | n | -1 |
| 4.05 | Toxic to animals | y | 1 |
| 4.06 | Host for recognized pests and pathogens | n | 0 |
| 4.07 | Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans | n | 0 |
| 4.08 | Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems | ||
| 4.09 | Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle | y | 1 |
| 4.1 | Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island) | y | 1 |
| 4.11 | Climbing or smothering growth habit | n | 0 |
| 4.12 | Forms dense thickets | n | 0 |
| 5.01 | Aquatic | n | 0 |
| 5.02 | Grass | n | 0 |
| 5.03 | Nitrogen fixing woody plant | y | 1 |
| 5.04 | Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers) | n | 0 |
| 6.01 | Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat | n | 0 |
| 6.02 | Produces viable seed. | y | 1 |
| 6.03 | Hybridizes naturally | y | 1 |
| 6.04 | Self-compatible or apomictic | y | 1 |
| 6.05 | Requires specialist pollinators | n | 0 |
| 6.06 | Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation | n | -1 |
| 6.07 | Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1 | 1 | 1 |
| 7.01 | Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas) | n | -1 |
| 7.02 | Propagules dispersed intentionally by people | y | 1 |
| 7.03 | Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant | y | 1 |
| 7.04 | Propagules adapted to wind dispersal | n | -1 |
| 7.05 | Propagules water dispersed | ||
| 7.06 | Propagules bird dispersed | n | -1 |
| 7.07 | Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally) | n | -1 |
| 7.08 | Propagules survive passage through the gut | n | -1 |
| 8.01 | Prolific seed production (>1000/m2) | y | 1 |
| 8.02 | Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr) | y | 1 |
| 8.03 | Well controlled by herbicides | ||
| 8.04 | Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire | y | 1 |
| 8.05 | Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents) | ||
| Total score: | 11 | ||
Supporting data:
|
Notes |
Reference |
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|
1.01 |
'There is reported to be relatively little agronomic variation among 3 of the 5 varieties of S. sesban (var. sesban, var. nubica, and var. bicolour) despite botanical differences. Relatively little is known of var. zambesiaca and var. punctata. Relatively little selection and breeding work has been conducted with S. sesban , but considerable variation in presence and concentrations of soluble phenolic and insoluble proanthocyanidin compounds. There may be potential to develop cultivars that support high liveweight gains, with little or no negative effects on reproduction in ruminants.' [Little selection and breeding work on S. sesban]. |
http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Sesbania_sesban.htm |
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1.02 |
(1)Naturalzied in Hawaii in pastures and disturbed areas. (2)Naturalized in Taiwan - 'On sandy river beds the grasslands are usually replaced by Saccharum spontaneum, Sesbania sesban and Pennisetum setacium.' |
(1)Wagner, W. L., Herbst, D. R. and Sohmer, S H. Manual of flowering plants of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. Vol 1 Page 704. (2)http://tai2.ntu.edu.tw/udth/bin/fot1.exe/browse?BID=1&page=13 |
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1.03 |
(1)Five varieties of S. sesban are recognized botanically but their differences do not correlate strongly with their agricultural value. (2)Sesbania sesban is a diploid species that occurs throughout Africa and most of western and southern Asia; it is a highly variable species, with two subspecies and four varieties recognized. [No evidence that any of the known varieties are weedy]. |
(1)http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/DATA/Pf000170.HTM (2)http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/Publicat/Gutt-shel/x5556e0d.htm |
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2.01 |
'Although its geographical origin is not known, it is widely distributed and cultivated throughout tropical Africa and Asia, and has been introduced into tropical America. It is found both in the humid tropics and in more arid and semiarid regions of the world.' |
CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
|
2.02 |
'Although its geographical origin is not known, it is widely distributed and cultivated throughout tropical Africa and Asia, and has been introduced into tropical America. It is found both in the humid tropics and in more arid and semiarid regions of the world.' |
CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
|
2.03 |
(1)Climate descriptors- |
(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://v1.winrock.org/forestry/factpub/factsh/sesban.htm (NFT Hifhlights NFTA 94-06, June 1994. A quick guide to useful nitrogen fixing trees from aro |
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2.04 |
(1) 'Although its geographical origin is not known, it is widely distributed and cultivated throughout tropical Africa and Asia, and has been introduced into tropical America. It is found both in the humid tropics and in more arid and semiarid regions of the world.' (2)Despite the existence of natural populations in eastern Zambia, considerable seed originating from Kenya has been introduced to the area, while further introductions from Malawi are planned. |
(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)High differentiation among populations of the woody legume Sesbania sesban in sub-Saharan Africa: implications for conservation and cultivation during g |
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2.05 |
(1)Africa is the centre of diversity, with subsequent distribution most likely by man. (2)It has a widespread distribution. |
(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Sesbania_sesban.htm (2)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
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3.01 |
(1)Naturalzied in Hawaii in pastures and disturbed areas. (2)Naturalized in Taiwan - 'On sandy river beds the grasslands are usually replaced by Saccharum spontaneum, Sesbania sesban and Pennisetum setacium.' |
(1)Wagner, W. L., Herbst, D. R. and Sohmer, S H. Manual of flowering plants of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. Vol 1 Page 704. (2)http://tai2.ntu.edu.tw/udth/bin/fot1.exe/browse?BID=1&page=13 |
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3.02 |
No evidence |
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3.03 |
No evidence |
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3.04 |
S. sesban seeds prolifically but seed is short-lived unless stored at low temperature and humidity. Seedlings establish readily on moist bare soil. Despite this, S. sesban rarely develops as a serious weed.' |
http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Sesbania_sesban.htm |
|
3.05 |
(1)S. punicea is one among the 34 invasive plants to be phased out by the Florida Nurserymen and Growers Association (FNGA). (2) 'Invasive alien species can have significant negative environmental and economic impacts. Such species are often controlled biologically by means of introducing host-specific insects or pathogens that can reduce the species' invasive potential. In many cases, plants are brought under complete control. In this paper, we describe an attempt to estimate the costs and benefits of the biological control of 6 weed species (Opuntia aurantiaca, Sesbania punicea, Lantana camara, Acacia longifolia, A. pycnantha and Hakea sericea) in South Africa. We estimated the costs of biological control research that was conducted on the plants, the rate at which each of these species spreads in the absence of biological control, and the degree to which spread has been arrested or reversed by biological control. ...' (3) "In the United States, S. punicea was introduced as a garden ornamental. It escaped cultivation and formed dense thickets along river banks, ditch banks and disturbed areas from Florida to eastern Texas. Similarly, it was planted in gardens in South Africa and soon became naturalized. Over a period of 20 years, the plant invaded the Natal coastal belt, the Natal midlands, northern Natal near ladysmith, the Transvaal highlands, the eastern Transvaal, and several areas of the Cape Province. Throughout these areas the plant has become an invasive weed, principally on river banks and in wetlands, where it has excluded native plants." (Csurhes and Edwards, 1998)' |
(1)http://www.fleppc.org/FNGA/FNGA_Pressrelease.htm (2)Costs and benefits of biological control of invasive alien plants: case studies from South Africa . By: Wilgen, B. W. van; South African Journal of Science 100 (1/2), 2004, p.113-122 (Journal artic |
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4.01 |
No evidence regarding such structures. |
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4.02 |
No evidence |
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4.03 |
No evidence |
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4.04 |
(1) 'It is mostly grown for
production of highly nutritive and digestible leaf fodder for which it is
repeatedly coppiced.' (2)Both the leaves, about 15 cm long, and the young
branches are lopped for fodder, which is readily eaten by cattle.
(3)Palatability/acceptability - Moderately well accepted by ruminants in
cut-and-carry feeding systems. |
(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/agap/frg/AFRIS/Data/283.htm (3)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Sesbania_sesban.htm |
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4.05 |
The saponin also shows spermicidal and haemolytic activity. Using S. sesban leaf meal in poultry diets (as 10% of the diet) is fatal to young chicks, |
http://www.worldagroforestry.org/Sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=1522 |
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4.06 |
(1)The following insects and fungi were recorded to be
associated with S. sesban: Pests recorded |
(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/veg/bean/southern_green_stink_bug.htm (3)http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/Type/nezara.htm (4)http://www.lsuagc |
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4.07 |
Probably not -(1) 'The leaves and flowers are edible; they are also utilized, along with a gum from the seeds and bark, for traditional medicines.' (2)The dried leaves of both S. grandiflora and S. sesban are used in some countries as a tea which is considered to have antibiotic, anti-helminthic, anti-tumour and contraceptive properties. |
(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/DATA/Pf000170.HTM |
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4.08 |
An evergreen species that grows in arid to the humid tropics. [not sufficient evidence to infer whether it is a fire hazard]. |
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4.09 |
Has moderate shade tolerance. |
http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Sesbania_sesban.htm |
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4.10 |
(1)Soil texture: light; medium; heavy, Soil drainage: impeded; seasonally waterlogged, Soil reaction: acid; neutral, Special soil tolerances: shallow; saline. (2)Another outstanding feature is its tolerance of both saline and alkaline soil conditions (Hansen and Munns 1985). However, its tolerance of highly acid, aluminium saturated soils is not known. (3)Soils: Found on a variety of soil types (Entisols, Utisols, Oxisols and Vertisols). It tolerates waterlogging and cracking clays (vertisols). |
(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/DATA/Pf000170.HTM (3)http://www.css.cornell.edu/ecf3/Web/new/AF/treeSsesban.html |
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4.11 |
S. sesban is a fast-growing leguminous shrub or small tree, up to 8 m tall and 12 cm in diameter. ' |
CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
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4.12 |
No evidence |
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5.01 |
S. sesban is a fast-growing leguminous shrub or small tree, up to 8 m tall and 12 cm in diameter. ' |
CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
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5.02 |
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5.03 |
(1) 'Ability to fix nitrogen' (2)Onim et al. (1987) speculated that the perennial Sesbania species could fix up to 600 kg N/ha/year. They felt this was possible because Sesbania roots are readily infected by the less specific cowpea types of Rhizobium gi |
(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/DATA/Pf000170.HTM |
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5.04 |
S. sesban is a fast-growing leguminous shrub or small tree, up to 8 m tall and 12 cm in diameter. ' |
CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
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6.01 |
No evidence of reproductive failure in Africa which is thought to be the center of diversity of S. sesban. |
http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Sesbania_sesban.htm |
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6.02 |
(1) 'It can easily be grown from seed and nursery seedlings.' (2)It is established from seed. |
(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/DATA/Pf000170.HTM |
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6.03 |
'Abstract: The somatic chromosome number in Sesbania sesban var. nubica, S. goetzei and S. keniensis (Leguminosae; Papilionidae) was found to be 2n = 12. These findings were in agreement with earlier reports on S. sesban and S. keniensis. The chromosome number 2n = 12 is a new record for S. goetzei. Similarities in karyotypes were found in the three species. All species had one pair of long metacentric chromosomes; the second pair was submedian, followed by four smaller pairs of metacentric chromosomes. Nucleolar organiser regions in the form of satellites were found on the short arm of the fourth chromosome pair in S. sesban and S. keniensis. Interspecific crosses in all possible combinations were carried out, resulting in pod and viable seed formation for the crosses S. sesban times S. goetzei, S. sesban times S. keniensis, S. goetzei times S. sesban and S. goetzei times S. keniensis. The two crosses with S. keniensis as a female parent were unsuccessful. The hybrid plants established normally and produced viable seeds.'. [Answered yes because - A new record for karyotype number in S. koerzei, similarities in karyotype and successful experimental interspecific hybridization suggest the likeliness of interspecific hybrids forming under natural conditions]. |
Heering, J. H.; Hanson, J. Karyotype analysis and interspecific hybridisation in three perennial Sesbania species (Leguminosae). Euphytica 71 (1-2) : 21-28 1993 |
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6.04 |
(1)'S. sesban is primarily out-crossing where suitable pollinators and heterozygous individuals in neighbouring populations are available. Self-pollination may occur late in the flowering period if pollinators fail to visit the flowers.' (2) 'The mating system of S. sesban was studied using one natural population and two cultivated populations. A large number of progeny (600) was assayed from each population for one polymorphic locus of malate dehydrogenase (Mdh). The level of out-crossing in the studied populations ranged from 40-100%. The genotype frequencies were in agreement with those of the Hardy-Weinberg expected genotype proportions as in randomly mating populations at P < 0.05. The floral structure and the pollen shedding behaviour of the flowers of S. sesban could favour cross-pollination and/or self-pollination depending on the circumstances. Self-pollination usually occurs late in the flowering period when pollinators fail to visit the flowers. Such a "delayed selfing" facilitates out-crossing in the presence of appropriate pollinators under natural conditions, but confers a selective advantage where pollinators are limiting. The results indicated that S. sesban could be self-fertilized in the absence of pollinators or could out-cross with other heterozygous individuals in the neighboring population when suitable pollinators are available. S. sesban exhibits "facultative xenogamy" or "delayed selfing" and is a mixed mating species.' (3) 'Fifty percent flowering was observed at 102 to 153 days after germination for S. sesban accessions; 96 to 146 days for S. goetzei; and 131 to 176 days for S. keniensis accessions. Flowers opened in the afternoon and remained fresh for 2-3 days. Bee species including Xylocopa sp., Apis mellifera, Megachile bituberculata and Chalicodoma sp. visited the flowers. Hand pollination experiments showed that all three Sesbania species were self and cross compatible. The percentage of fully developed seeds was greater in pods formed after cross pollination compared to self pollinated fruits. No evidence was found for stigmatic or stylar self incompatibility. Outcrossing is probably the common method of reproduction under natural conditions, although in isolated trees substantial seed set by selfing might occur. Pod production under natural conditions was 34% for S. sesban; 49% for S. goetzei and 39% for S. keniensis. Considerable variation was found in pod production under open pollination between accessions of the same species. Selective abortion was observed within pods, with more mature seeds formed at the distal end of the pod.' |
(1)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Sesbania_sesban.htm (2)The mating system of Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. (Leguminosae) . By: Girma Gebremariam; Sinet, Ethiopian Journal of Science 25 (2), 2002, p.177-190 (Journal article -Abstra |
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6.05 |
Sesbania spp. are pollinated by bees, except for large-flowered species such as S. grandiflora which appear to be pollinated by birds.' |
http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/DATA/Pf000170.HTM |
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6.06 |
No evidence regarding natural spread through vegetative means. |
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6.07 |
Flowering of S. sesban is prolific and will occur within 12 months of sowing. It is photoperiod sensitive, flowering into short days (peak flowering occurs in April-May in Queensland, Australia). Seed matures in 2-3 months. |
http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Sesbania_sesban.htm |
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7.01 |
Probably not - no evidence that the propagules have any means of attachment. |
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7.02 |
Products. 1. Wood - Descriptors: fuelwood; round wood; posts; stakes; building poles; sawn or hewn building timbers; for light construction; exterior fittings; fences; woodware; industrial and domestic woodware; cutlery; pulp; short fibre pulp; charcoal. |
CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. |
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7.03 |
Probably yes -(1) It is widely used as 'as an agroforestry tree within farming systems - in alley-cropping, as a shade tree, as a support tree for horticultural plants and for planted fallows.' (2) It is used as hedgerows, live support for black pepper, |
(1)CAB International, 2000. Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.css.cornell.edu/ecf3/Web/new/AF/treeSsesban.html |
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7.04 |
(1)Pods are subcylindrical, straight or slightly curved up to 30 cm long and 5 mm wide containing 10-50 seeds. (2)Pods are indehiscent and do not shed their seeds until well after pod maturity.' [Probably not - no evidence tha the seeds have any adaptation for wind dispersal, the pods probably disperse by gravity.] |
(1)http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/DATA/Pf000170.HTM (2)http://www.worldagroforestry.org/Sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=1522 |
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7.05 |
'It has outstanding ability to withstand waterlogging and is ideally suited to seasonally flooded environments. When flooded, it initiates floating, adventitious roots and protects its stems, roots and nodules with spongy, aerenchyma tissue. It is common along streams, swamp banks and moist and inundated bottomlands.' [ The seeds too might be able to disperse through water, however no evidence of seeds being dispersed by water]. |
http://www.worldagroforestry.org/Sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=1522 |
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7.06 |
Probably not - a legume. |
(1)http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/DATA/Pf000170.HTM |
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7.07 |
Probably not - no evidence that the propagules have any means of attachment. |
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7.08 |
'In some countries, flowers and leaves are eaten. Seeds, if soaked for three days and boiled half an hour to remove poison, also make a bean substitute. Cattle, sheep and goats eat the leaves, and the bark fibre can be used to make ropes.' [Probably not - seeds appear to be poisonous and no evidence that the seeds are consumed by livestock]. |
http://agroforesttrees.cisat.jmu.edu/tree_info.asp?tid=75 |
|
8.01 |
(1)Pods are subcylindrical, straight or slightly curved up to 30 cm long and 5 mm wide containing 10-50 seeds. (2)'S. sesban seeds prolifically but seed is short-lived unless stored at low temperature and humidity. (3)Seed production can be as high as 1to 2 tons/hectare. (4)S. sesban seed size - 1.5-2.5 x 4-5 mm. Seed weight - 55,000 to 80,000 seeds/kg. [Aprrox 5500/ seeds per sq m when in cultivation, which may not be the case under natural conditions but answered yes due to relatively small seed size and high seed yeilds of the species]. |
(1)http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/DATA/Pf000170.HTM (2)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Sesbania_sesban.htm (3)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Sesbania_sesban.htm |
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8.02 |
(1)'Seeds of S. sesban have a hard seed coat and scarification is recommended to ensure uniform seed germination.' (2)S. sesban seeds prolifically but seed is short-lived unless stored at low temperature and humidity. Seedlings establish readily on moist bare soil. Despite this, S. sesban rarely develops as a serious weed. (3)Sesbania seeds can normally be stored for several yeats at ambient temperatures (15 to 30C) with little loss of viability, although this varies with species and seed source. Grandiflora seeds will loose viability rapidly after about a year unless stored at low temperatures and humidity. Sesban seeds are not as short-lived and may be kept for many years under good conditions.' (3)Seed storage behaviour is orthodox. Viability can be maintained for 2 years in open storage at room temperature. |
(1)http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/DATA/Pf000170.HTM (2)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Sesbania_sesban.htm (3)Evans, D O. and Macklin B. (Eds) 1990. Perennial Sesbania Production and Use. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association |
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8.03 |
'Herbicide effects -No information available'. |
http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Sesbania_sesban.htm |
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8.04 |
(1)'Cutting management has a very important influence on its productivity, S. sesban thrives under repeated cutting and coppices readily with many branches arising from the main stem below cutting height. Cutting frequencies have generally been in the order of three or four cuts yearly but up to eight cuts per year have been taken in some.' (2) 'Fire - Unknown, unlikely to be tolerant to severe fire.' |
(1)http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/DATA/Pf000170.HTM (2)http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Sesbania_sesban.htm |
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8.05 |
Don’t know. |
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