Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Saccharum officinarum L.; sugar cane

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

y

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

n

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

n

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

y

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

y

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

y

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

n

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

n

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

n

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

-2

Notes

Source

1.01

Origin and geographic distribution Sugar cane originated in New Guinea where it has been known since about 6000 BC. From about 1000 BC it spread gradually through the Malay archipelago. It is assumed that it then hybridized with the wild canes of India and China. It reached Hawaii between 500—1000 AD and the Mediterranean between 600—1400 AD. From there it was brought to the Caribbean and the Americas in the 16th and 17th Centuries. Currently, cane is being produced in almost 70 countries, mainly in the tropical zone but to some extent also in subtropical areas. In South-East Asia, the main cane sugar producing countries are Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea.

Kuntohartono, T. & Thijsse, J.P., 2003. Saccharum officinarum L. [Internet] Record from Proseabase. Flach, M. & Rumawas, F. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed from Internet: Thursday, 02 June 2005.

1.02

(1)" uncommonly naturalized" (2). In sugarcane districts, transient sugarcane plants may occur along roadsides or railways where it can establish after displacement during transport, but there is no indication that these form self-perpetuating populations.

(1)http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80824e/80824E0t.htm (2)http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:5GIBWaZXnyIJ:www.ogtr.gov.au/rtf/ir/
biologysugarcane.rtf+Saccharum+officinarum+invasive&hl=en

1.03

no evidence

2.01

Originated in the South Pacific Islands and New Guinea. Found throughout the tropics and subtropics. In the US it is cultivated from Florida to Texas. Sugarcane is cultivated as far as north as 36.7° (Spain) and as far south as 31° (South Africa) (Irvine, 1981).

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Saccharum_officinarum.html

2.02

2.03

Latitude range 30°N and S, 50-3000 m elevation [wide range under cultivation]

http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/GBASE/data/PF000310.HTM

2.04

Originated in the South Pacific Islands and New Guinea. Found throughout the tropics and subtropics. In the US it is cultivated from Florida to Texas. Sugarcane is cultivated as far as north as 36.7° (Spain) and as far south as 31° (South Africa) (Irvine, 1981).

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Saccharum_officinarum.html

2.05

Origin and geographic distribution Sugar cane originated in New Guinea where it has been known since about 6000 BC. From about 1000 BC it spread gradually through the Malay archipelago. It is assumed that it then hybridized with the wild canes of India and China. It reached Hawaii between 500—1000 AD and the Mediterranean between 600—1400 AD. From there it was brought to the Caribbean and the Americas in the 16th and 17th Centuries. Currently, cane is being produced in almost 70 countries, mainly in the tropical zone but to some extent also in subtropical areas. In South-East Asia, the main cane sugar producing countries are Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea.

Kuntohartono, T. & Thijsse, J.P., 2003. Saccharum officinarum L. [Internet] Record from Proseabase. Flach, M. & Rumawas, F. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed from Internet: Thursday, 02 June 2005.

3.01

(1)" uncommonly naturalized" (2). In sugarcane districts, transient sugarcane plants may occur along roadsides or railways where it can establish after displacement during transport, but there is no indication that these form self-perpetuating populations.

(1)http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80824e/80824E0t.htm (2)http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:5GIBWaZXnyIJ:www.ogtr.gov.au/rtf/ir/
biologysugarcane.rtf+Saccharum+officinarum+invasive&hl=en

3.02

no evidence

3.03

no evidence

3.04

Commercial cultivars of sugarcane are hybrids of S. officinarum and S. spontaneum. They are not recognised as weeds in Australia or anywhere in the world. They have lost many of the critical weedy attributes that were present in the parental species from which the cultivated sugarcane hybrids were derived (Holm et al. 1997). Due to its perennial nature, some populations escape from cultivation and can persist as long as there is sufficient moisture in the root zone. A few populations of S. officinarum have established outside agricultural areas in southern Queensland for 30-40 years. These populations consist of only a few stools and do not result in further spread.

http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:5GIBWaZXnyIJ:www.ogtr.gov.au/rtf/ir/
biologysugarcane.rtf+Saccharum+officinarum+invasive&hl=en

3.05

Saccharum spontaneum L. is a noxious weed

http://plants.usda.gov/cgi_bin/topics.cgi?earl=plant_profile.cgi&symbol=SASP

4.01

no evidence

Kuntohartono, T. & Thijsse, J.P., 2003. Saccharum officinarum L. [Internet] Record from Proseabase. Flach, M. & Rumawas, F. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed from Internet: Thursday, 02 June 2005.

4.02

"Further separation of diethyl ether extract revealed two new toxic compounds namely 2,4-dihydroxy-1, 4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIBOA) and benzoxazolin-2-one (BOA) in sugarcane leaves. In bioassays, DIBOA and BOA inhibited the root growth of lentil seedlings by 50% or more at 0.45 mM and 1.25-mM concentrations, respectively. Only DIBOA showed significant activity on wheat, but neither of the compounds inhibited seed germination at the concentrations tested." [lab only, not representative of field conditions]

Isolation and identification of allelochemicals from sugarcane leaves. By: Pushpa Singh; Allelopathy Journal 12 (1), 2003, p.71-79 (Journal article)

4.03

no evidence

4.04

(3)Palatability to browse animals- hight, Palatability to grazing animals - high.

(2)http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/GBASE/data/PF000310.HTM (3)http://plants.usda.gov/cgi_bin/topics.cgi?earl=plant_profile.cgi&symbol=SAOF

4.05

(1)Trials in the Caribbean (Donefer, James & Laurie, 1973) have shown that freshly harvested and processed sugar fith and cane tops (SF/CT) constituting 80 percent of the cattle's dry-matter ration resulted in weight gains averaging 0.9 kg per day during the traditional finishing period; additional energy supplementation from molasses or maize significantly increased gains. Dairy trials have indicated that SF/CT can constitute up to half of the total ration, replacing energy-rich feeds as well as supplying a source of succulent forage. (2)Toxicity -- The plant contains hydrocyanic acid. Sugarcane is a known teratogen; and is known to stimulate somatic mutations (aneuploidy and polyploidy) in plants (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis, 1977). Molasses, fed alone, or in large amounts with other feed, may produce diarrhea, colic, kidney irritation, urticaria, exanthema, leminitis, malanders, profuse sweating and paralysis, in domestic stock. Horses seem to be very susceptible, and 1.25 kg daily for 3 weeks, has proved fatal

(1)http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/GBASE/data/PF000310.HTM(2)http://
www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Saccharum_officinarum.html

4.06

Puccinia melanocephala and P. kuehnii are specialist pathogen also infect other crops including Saccarum spp., Bambusa spp.

Taxonomy of Puccinia species causing rust diseases on sugarcane. By: Virtudazo, E. V.; Mycoscience 42 (2), 2001, p.167-175 (Journal article)

4.07

there are no reports of any major allergic responses to the commercial hybrid cultivars of sugarcane

http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:5GIBWaZXnyIJ:www.ogtr.gov.au/rtf/ir/
biologysugarcane.rtf+Saccharum+officinarum+invasive&hl=en

4.08

(1)The fire spreads very rapidly, burning away the leaves (2) Unextinguished cigarette ends may cause sugar fires, which are greatly feared because they are difficult to extinguish.

(1)http://www.answers.com/topic/sugarcane (2)http://www.tis-gdv.de/tis_e/ware/zucker/weiszuck/weiszuck.htm

4.09

Occurs gregariously, growing in sunny areas

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Saccharum_officinarum.html

4.1

(1)Occurs gregariously, growing in sunny areas, on soil unsuitable to trees; needs aeration at the roots and grows in sand but not loam, along sandy banks of rivers that change their course (Burkill, 1966). (2)It has a wide range of soil tolerance, but drainage is essential.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Saccharum_officinarum.html (2)http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:5GIBWaZXnyIJ:www.ogtr.gov.au/rtf/ir/
biologysugarcane.rtf+Saccharum+officinarum+invasive&hl=en

4.11

A large, perennial grass up to 6 m tall.

Kuntohartono, T. & Thijsse, J.P., 2003. Saccharum officinarum L. [Internet] Record from Proseabase. Flach, M. & Rumawas, F. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed from Internet: Thursday, 02 June 2005.

4.12

(1)A few populations of S. officinarum have established outside agricultural areas in southern Queensland for 30-40 years. These populations consist of only a few stools [ony forms extensive thickets in planted fields]

http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:5GIBWaZXnyIJ:www.ogtr.gov.au/rtf/ir/
biologysugarcane.rtf+Saccharum+officinarum+invasive&hl=en

5.01

terrestrial

5.02

A large, perennial grass up to 6 m tall.

Kuntohartono, T. & Thijsse, J.P., 2003. Saccharum officinarum L. [Internet] Record from Proseabase. Flach, M. & Rumawas, F. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed from Internet: Thursday, 02 June 2005.

5.03

perennial grass

Kuntohartono, T. & Thijsse, J.P., 2003. Saccharum officinarum L. [Internet] Record from Proseabase. Flach, M. & Rumawas, F. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed from Internet: Thursday, 02 June 2005.

5.04

perennial grass

Kuntohartono, T. & Thijsse, J.P., 2003. Saccharum officinarum L. [Internet] Record from Proseabase. Flach, M. & Rumawas, F. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed from Internet: Thursday, 02 June 2005.

6.01

" uncommonly naturalized"

http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80824e/80824E0t.htm

6.02

(1)Propagated by stem cuttings, but seed produced in the tropics assist in the production of cvs through hybridization (2)Frequently the male stamens may be abortive resulting in reduced or absent pollen production. The ability of sugarcane to reproduce sexually was not recognised until 1888. [many varieties are sterile]

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Saccharum_officinarum.html (2)http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:5GIBWaZXnyIJ:www.ogtr.gov.au/rtf/ir/
biologysugarcane.rtf+Saccharum+officinarum+invasive&hl=en

6.03

(1)Saccharum sinense Roxb. (2n = 116, 118), known as 'Chinese cane'. The sucrose content is medium, the fibre content high. The plant is semi-early maturing, has long and slender stems, with long and narrow leaves. It is thought to be a hybrid between Saccharum officinarum and Saccharum spontaneum and is found in India, Indo-China, southern China and Taiwan. (2). S. officinarum itself is thought to be the product of complex introgression between S. spontaneum, Eriathus arundinaceus and Miscanthus sinensis

(1)Kuntohartono, T. & Thijsse, J.P., 2003. Saccharum officinarum L. [Internet] Record from Proseabase. Flach, M. & Rumawas, F. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed from Internet: Thursday, 02 June 2005. (2)http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:5GIBWaZXnyIJ:www.ogtr.gov.au/rtf/ir/
biologysugarcane.rtf+Saccharum+officinarum+invasive&hl=en

6.04

Sugarcane is a cross-pollinating species although selfing occurs at low levels (McIntyre & Jackson 1995; Moore & Nuss 1987).

http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:5GIBWaZXnyIJ:www.ogtr.gov.au/rtf/ir/
biologysugarcane.rtf+Saccharum+officinarum+invasive&hl=en

6.05

wind pollinated

6.06

Either whole stalks or stalks cut up into shorter segments called setts are used as planting material [spread from broken stalks]

http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:5GIBWaZXnyIJ:www.ogtr.gov.au/rtf/ir/
biologysugarcane.rtf+Saccharum+officinarum+invasive&hl=en

6.07

Sugarcane is routinely harvested before flowering [12-18 months]

http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:5GIBWaZXnyIJ:www.ogtr.gov.au/rtf/ir/
biologysugarcane.rtf+Saccharum+officinarum+invasive&hl=en

7.01

no evidence

7.02

Origin and geographic distribution Sugar cane originated in New Guinea where it has been known since about 6000 BC. From about 1000 BC it spread gradually through the Malay archipelago. It is assumed that it then hybridized with the wild canes of India and China. It reached Hawaii between 500—1000 AD and the Mediterranean between 600—1400 AD. From there it was brought to the Caribbean and the Americas in the 16th and 17th Centuries. Currently, cane is being produced in almost 70 countries, mainly in the tropical zone but to some extent also in subtropical areas. In South-East Asia, the main cane sugar producing countries are Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea.

Kuntohartono, T. & Thijsse, J.P., 2003. Saccharum officinarum L. [Internet] Record from Proseabase. Flach, M. & Rumawas, F. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed from Internet: Thursday, 02 June 2005.

7.03

no evidence

7.04

Inflorescence a terminal panicle, 25—50 cm long; two spikelets borne at each node of ultimate branches, one sessile and one pediceled; spikelet consisting of two boat-shaped glumes, surrounded by long, silky hairs, and two flowers; lower flower sterile with a single glume, upper one bisexual with a small, thin palea, enfolded by the glume of the sterile flower, 2 lodicules, 3 long stamens and a pistil with 2 feathery, usually purplish stigmas. Fruit a small caryopsis, about 1 mm long. [small fruit with hair]

Kuntohartono, T. & Thijsse, J.P., 2003. Saccharum officinarum L. [Internet] Record from Proseabase. Flach, M. & Rumawas, F. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed from Internet: Thursday, 02 June 2005.

7.05

no evidence

7.06

no evidence

7.07

no evidence

7.08

no evidence

8.01

The ability of sugarcane to reproduce sexually was not recognised until 1888. [most varieties are nearly sterile]

http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:5GIBWaZXnyIJ:www.ogtr.gov.au/rtf/ir/
biologysugarcane.rtf+Saccharum+officinarum+invasive&hl=en

8.02

Sugarcane fuzz [seed] is short lived, loosing 90% of its viability in 80 days at 28ºC if not desiccated (Rao 1980).

http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:5GIBWaZXnyIJ:www.ogtr.gov.au/rtf/ir/
biologysugarcane.rtf+Saccharum+officinarum+invasive&hl=en

8.03

The efficacy of glyphosate on killing sugarcane is affected by various factors such as cane varieties, soil type and stage of cane growth (Turner 1980). Sugarcane growing in light soils was more susceptible to herbicide treatment than that growing on heavy soils (Turner 1980). The growth stage of sugarcane has a pronounced effect on the efficacy of herbicide application. Sugarcane was killed more easily when the height of the leaf canopy was between 0.4-0.75m. Sugarcane appears to be more difficult to kill with herbicide once some stalks have been produced (Turner 1980). In addition, considerable improvement of eradication was also obtained when a mechanical under-cutter was used to shear the roots following herbicide application.

http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:5GIBWaZXnyIJ:www.ogtr.gov.au/rtf/ir/
biologysugarcane.rtf+Saccharum+officinarum+invasive&hl=en

8.04

Occurs gregariously, growing in sunny areas, on soil unsuitable to trees; needs aeration at the roots and grows in sand but not loam, along sandy banks of rivers that change their course (Burkill, 1966). ; Stem robust, profusely tillering at base [a pioneer plant, ability to tiller from stem base] (2)Response to fire - Sugar cane is often burnt to ease harvesting. It is not killed, and will sucker from nodes or regrow from the "stool" afterwards.

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Saccharum_officinarum.html (2)http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/GBASE/data/PF000310.HTM

8.05

many disease known to occur in hawaii but don't know their impacts on natural populations