Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC.; mesquite, thorny kiawe

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

y

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

y

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

y

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

y

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

y

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

y

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

y

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

n

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

3

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

19

Notes

Source

1.01

"Due to self-incompatibility in Prosopis spp., and the natural formation of interspecific hybrids (Hunziker et al., 1986), the variability among progeny for thorns, growth rate and pod production can be very great. For this reason, some form of asexual propagation, or use of improved seed with less variation is important. As described in the section on vegetative propagation, clonal propagation of Prosopis alba has been too unreliable to be commercially useful for plantations. However, as several reports have indicated that P. juliflora gives higher rooting percentages than other species, it is possible that commercial techniques could be developed to asexually propagate elite clones of this group. " [no indication of prolonged domestication]

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

1.02

Location of introductions
P. juliflora has become naturalised throughout the Neotropics, including Mexico, many areas of Brazil, and Hawaii (USA). It has been introduced into many dry tropical areas in Africa, South-East Asia, the Indian subcontinent and Australia (Faridah Hanum and Van der Maesen, 1997).

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

1.03

"It seems clear that P. juliflora from the coastal regions of Peru has exceptional promise for world-wide use in arid regions. Not only is this Prosopis fast-growing, but it is erect, many trees are spineless and the pods have excellent quality for human use. With the possibility of grafting superior scions onto the rootstock of weedy, multi-stemmed and thorny varieties (thus avoiding nurseries and transplanting operations), rapid progress could be made in the genetic improvement of the extensive stands of genetically inferior P. juliflora world-wide." [varieties with more weedy traits recognized]

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.01

Native:
NORTHERN AMERICA
Mexico [w. & s.]
SOUTHERN AMERICA
Mesoamerica: Central America
Northern South America: Venezuela
Western South America: Colombia; Ecuador [incl. Galapagos]; Peru [n.]
Other: cultivated & naturalized elsewhere in tropics

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.
URL: http://www.ars-grin.gov/var/apache/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Prosopis+juliflora (15 June 2004)

2.02

2.03

(1) Climate
P. juliflora is adaptable to virtually all frost-free semi-arid climatic regions of the world. It occurs naturally in the relatively cool, coastal arid desert of Peru where maximum temperatures seldom reach 32 degree C. but it can also flourish in hot desert areas of Africa (e.g., Niger and Sudan) where temperatures of 42 degree C. routinely exist. In some locations in the Sudan it occurs where there is a 10 month dry season with temperatures routinely greater than 40 degree C.
Descriptors
- Altitude range: 0 - 500 m
- Mean annual rainfall: 150 - 1200 mm
- Rainfall regime: summer; winter; bimodal; uniform
- Dry season duration: 6 - 9 months
- Mean annual temperature: 16 - 28C
- Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 22 - 42C
- Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 9 - 22C
- Absolute minimum temperature: > 0C
Natural latitude range: Approximate limits north to south: 20 N to 10 S
Vegetation types: cerrado; deserts; dry forests; dunes; grasslands; savanna woodlands; savanna

(1) CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
(2) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Prosopis_juliflora.html
(3) http://www.conabio.gob.mx/conocimiento/info_especies/arboles/doctos/46-legum44m.pdf (4)http://mobot.mobot.org/cgi-bin/search_vast (5)http://ecocrop.fao.org/

2.04

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.
URL: http://www.ars-grin.gov/var/apache/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Prosopis+juliflora (15 June 2004)

2.05

It has been introduced into many tropical areas, including northeastern Brazil, Africa, Australia, Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent. Central American lowlands, Carribean, South American lowlands (Venezuela, North East Brazil, Pacific shores), naturalized in many tropical zones, Pakistan, India, North Australia, East Africa, South Africa, the Sahel, Cape Verde Islands, the Arabian-Persian, Gulf, Southern Arabian Peninsula.
It was introduced to Senegal and Mauritania in the early 19 th century (Pasiecznik et al., 2000)., and from there apparently spread in various Sahel countries ; it was introduced to the Sudan in 1917 and now banned because of its invasiveness (Wickens, pers.com., 2000) and to Rajasthan in 1914 (Bhandari, 1978), in the 3 cases to help combat desertification. Surprisingly, the same scenario occurred in the 4 countries : the tree was introduced under its correct name, then identified as such by Burkart 1976 and Burkart & Simpson (1977) and later misidentified as {{Prosopis chilensis}}

http://www.ecoport.org/

3.01

Location of introductions
P. juliflora has become naturalised throughout the Neotropics, including Mexico, many areas of Brazil, and Hawaii (USA). It has been introduced into many dry tropical areas in Africa, South-East Asia, the Indian subcontinent and Australia (Faridah Hanum and Van der Maesen, 1997).

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

3.02

no evidence

3.03

(1) It is classified as a principal weed in Mexico, a common weed in the US (but does not naturally occur in the US, this report due to the long prevailing taxonomic confusion), and a weed in Australia, Dominican Republic, India, Iraq, and Venezuela. (2)The tree is an aggressive invader and in subhumid areas it may cause immense problems. (3)Noxious weed Hawaii

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Prosopis_juliflora.html (2)http://ecocrop.fao.org/ (3)http://invader.dbs.umt.edu/noxious_weeds/noxlist.asp

3.04

(1) "Thorny kiawe forms dense, impenetrable thickets that can overtake developed landscapes and out-compete native Hawaiian plant species. "
(2) "At least four species of Prosop is and an unknown number of hybrids have naturalised in Australia. In Western Australia, almost 120,000ha are infested with mesquite (Dodd and Martin 1986). In New South Wales, the total area has been estimated at about 24,000ha (mostly PP juliflora). Existing control programs utilise herbicides and mechanical control (bulldozers). P velutina may also exist in New South Wales. With their potential to colonise most semi-arid and arid areas, mesquites are predicted to become some of Australia's worst environmental weeds, especially along watercourses." (3)form dense and impenetrable forests that gradual substitute the original landscape and compete with species of the native flora [Brazil] (4)KISC’s top-priority noxious species:PLANTS- Miconia (Miconia calvescens), Long Thorn Kiawe (Prosopis juliflora),

(1) http://www.hear.org/oisc/oisc_target_species.htm#prosopis_juliflora
(2) http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/weeds/potential/appendix-c-p.html (3)http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/moredocs/proalp01.html (4)http://www2.hawaii.edu/scb/docs/formats/pdf/2002_Abstracts.pdf

3.05

Prosopis stephaniana is listed as a principal weed in Turkey. Prosopis ruscifolia is listed as a principal weed in Paraguay and P. juliflora in Mexico.

Holm et al. 1997. An electronic atlas of weeds and invasive species. CD-ROM database. Version 1.

4.01

"Spines usually occur on young branches. In both Peru and Hawaii, spiny or spineless individuals exist, but seeds taken from spineless trees will produce progeny that are both spiny and spineless."

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.02

AB: Cynodon dactylon seeds were germinated at 30 deg C in aqueous extracts of 10-60 g dry Prosopis juliflora leaves/litre. Germination rate index, corrected for pH of the leaf extracts, showed decreasing germination with increasing leaf extract concentration. Final germination percentage was also reduced by the extracts, but time to 50% of final germination was less affected. Germination was totally inhibited by the 60 g/litre extract concentration. Radicle and plumule lengths were decreased by leaf extracts, with radicle most affected. Polyethylene glycol 2000 solutions with the same pH and osmotic potentials as the extracts decreased germination and radicle growth rate less than the corresponding extracts. It is concluded that P. juliflora leaves contain water-soluble allelopathins which could inhibit seed germination and retard rate of germination and seedling growth in C. dactylon. [lab only]

Al-Humaid, A. I. Warrag, M. O. A. (1998) Allelopathic effects of mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) foliage on seed germination and seedling growth of bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon). Journal of Arid Environments, 1998, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 237-243, 26 ref.

4.03

no evidence

4.04

"The pods provide a valuable fodder and human food crop, and are nutritious and palatable. The foliage, however, is not palatable, even to camels and goats, except the tips of very tender twigs; thus, the species is suitable for use in hedges and live fences."

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.05

(1) AB: P. juliflora mature pods were experimentally fed to 18 goats, which were allocated to 3 groups of 6 animals each (India). Animals in group A were the untreated controls. Animals in group B were fed P. juliflora pods at 400 g/animal/day, and group C were given exclusively P. juliflora mature pods for 4 days. On an average, the animals ate 508 g dry pods of P. juliflora in group C. Hybrid Napier grass was fed as basal feed. Partial anorexia, depression, salivation, twitching, dehydration and bloody diarrhoea were observed in affected goats. In P. juliflora-treated goats, there was a significant (P<0.01) decrease in haemoglobin (8.85 plus or minus 0.22 g/dl in treated group C, and 10.53 plus or minus 0.09 g/dl in control group A), ruminal pH (5.23 plus or minus 0.015 in treated group C and 7.09 plus or minus 0.01 in control group A), ruminal bacterial count (13.80 x 109 plus or minus 0.55/ml in treated group C and 20.80 x 109 plusor minus 0.02 in control group A) and total disappearance of the ruminal p

(1) Jyoti Misri Vihan, V. S. Ashok Kumar (2003) Toxicity studies on Prosopis juliflora in goats - haematobiochemical and pathological profile. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 2003, Vol. 73, No. 4, pp. 349-352, 16 ref.
(2) Tabosa, I. M. Riet-Correa, F. Simões, S. S. D. Medeiros, R. M. T. Nobre, V. M. T. Editor: Acamovic, T. Stewart, C. S. Pennycott, T. W. (2004) Intoxication by Prosopis juliflora pods (mesquite beans) in cattle and goats in Northeastern Brazil. Poisonous plants and related toxins, 2004, pp. 341-346, 25 ref.
(3) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Prosopis_juliflora.html

4.06

(1)Caryedon serratus is a recognized pest attacking legume hosts. (2)Caryedon serratus is a generalist Coleoptera Bruchidae

(1)Halle, D. N. Awaknavar, J. S. Somashekhar (2002) Biology of tamarind beetle Caryedon serratus (Olivier) on groundnut and other hosts. Insect Environment, 2002, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 67-69 (2)http://www.soton.ac.uk/~icuc/tambib/tam-ppd2.htm

4.07

AB: "Allergenically important pollen are Prosopis juliflora, Ricinus communis, Morus, Mallotus, Alnus, Querecus, Cedrus, Argemone, Amaranthus, Chenopodium, Holoptelea, Brassica, Cocos, Cannabis, Parthenium, Cassia and grasses. "

Singh, A. B.; Pawan Kumar (2003) Aeroallergens in clinical practice of allergy in India. An overview. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine, 2003, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 131-136, 46 ref.

4.08

"large trees (>50 cm in diameter) will help to increase soil organic C and N, which in turn will encourage vigorous growth of grasses requiring high soil fertility (e.g., Panicum maximum), and a vigorous ground cover will reduce or discourage P. juliflora seedling encroachment." [no direct evidence of being a fire hazard species, but may promote grass establishment]

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.09

"Shade intolerant."

http://extension.usu.edu/forestry/UtahForests/TreeID/prju.htm

4.1

" It can grow on any type of soil, including highly alkaline and saline soils. "
Soil and physiography
P. juliflora most often grows in neutral to alkaline soils. In India this species has been used to reclaim high pH soils (Singh, 1995). If soil pH is less than 9.0, no amendments are needed. However if soil pH is more than 9, it is necessary to use gypsum, farmyard manure and zinc in the planting holes with the trees. After 20 years, the effect of the P. juliflora trees has been to reduce the soil pH from 10.4 to 8.03, and other crops could be grown (Singh, 1995).
P. juliflora is also very salt tolerant - greenhouse experiments have been undertaken with P. juliflora grown for 4 weeks at seawater salinity (Rhodes and Felker, 1988); the high salt tolerance was confirmed by other greenhouse studies (Baker et al., 1995). Ahmad et al. (1996) used saline water to irrigate P. juliflora in afforestation projects to establish windbreaks to stop sand dunes from advancing onto villages in Pakistan.
The species is not s

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.11

"a tree grow to about 13 m (-20 m) in height"

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.12

(1) "Thorny kiawe forms dense, impenetrable thickets that can overtake developed landscapes and out-compete native Hawaiian plant species. "
(2) This species can form thorny, impenetrable, dense stands with as many as 20,000 stems/ha. These stands may result from coppicing of single shoots for firewood harvests. These dense stands are also favoured by (1) overgrazing, which leaves an infertile site where legumes have an advantage, and (2) a bare ground surface with no herbaceous cover, which provides no competition for emerging P. juliflora seedlings.

http://www.hear.org/oisc/oisc_target_species.htm#prosopis_juliflora

5.01

Vegetation types: cerrado; deserts; dry forests; dunes; grasslands; savanna woodlands; savannas

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.02

"a tree grow to about 13 m (-20 m) in height"

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.03

"It can fix nitrogen in harsh, saline and/or arid environments."

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

5.04

tree

6.01

"The phenology of fruiting varies according to the region where the trees are grown and the rainfall regime. In Peru these species begin to flower in January with the first rains and flowering finishes in March. In this case mature pods would be ripe 3 months after flowering, i.e. from March to June. In Brazil, it flowers profusely during December-February and pods are mature in February-May. In India, flowering and fruiting is from August to October (Faridah Hanum and Van der Maesen, 1997)."

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.02

"Boiling water and acid scarification treatments can be used to enhance seed germination, but these treatments result in irregular germination over many weeks. If the blunt ends of the seeds are severed with a knife (at rate of about 300 per hour) virtually 100% emergence will occur in 4 days if the soil temperature is 30C."

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.03

(1) "Due to self-incompatibility in Prosopis spp., and the natural formation of interspecific hybrids (Hunziker et al., 1986), the variability among progeny for thorns, growth rate and pod production can be very great."
(2) "Thorny kiawe is also known to cross pollinate with P. pallida, developing new hybrids having thorns up to 1 inch or more in length. "

(1) CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
(2) http://www.hear.org/oisc/oisc_target_species.htm#prosopis_juliflora

6.04

"Prosopis is self-incompatible"

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.05

" As Prosopis is self-incompatible and insect pollinated, it is highly probable that apiculture practised in areas with P. juliflora would stimulate pod production as well as generate income from honey and wax." [used by bees]

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

6.06

Propagation: Seeds, root suckers, hardwood cuttings [no other reference mentioned root suckers, indicating that it is an unlikely means of spreading]

http://www.desert-tropicals.com/Plants/Fabaceae/Prosopis_juliflora.html

6.07

"Bearing fruits in 3 to 4 years"

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Prosopis_juliflora.html

7.01

no evidence

7.02

Location of introductions
P. juliflora has become naturalised throughout the Neotropics, including Mexico, many areas of Brazil, and Hawaii (USA). It has been introduced into many dry tropical areas in Africa, South-East Asia, the Indian subcontinent and Australia (Faridah Hanum and Van der Maesen, 1997).

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.03

no eviodence

7.04

P. julifora pods are typically 10-25 cm long, 1-1.5 cm broad and 5-9 mm thick but exceptional specimens of Peruvian pods may be 50 cm long. [unlikely, large fruit]

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.05

"Seed pods and seeds can be transported by floodwater or eaten by animals and spread in their manure."

http://www.hear.org/pier/species/prosopis_juliflora.htm

7.06

no eviodence

7.07

no known means of attachment

7.08

"Often P. juliflora occurs as a solid mass or hedge 4- to 6-m tall along roadsides where it becomes established due to seeds in animal droppings."

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

8.01

(1) Felker and Bandurski (1979) estimate 2,000 kg/ha pods for such species as Prosopis juliflora in unmanaged Arizona desert, 4,000–20,000 kg/ha pods in arid Hawaiian savannas. Pods several-seeded, strongly compressed when young, thick at maturity, more or less constricted between the seeds, 10–25 cm long, brown or yellowish, 10–30-seeded. Seed compressed and oval or elliptic, 2.5–7 mm long, brown (Reed, 1970). [0.2-2 kg of pods per square meter]
(2) The yield of seed extraction has been increased from the initial 30% to up to 80% of seeds (from 3% to 7% expressed as percentage of pod weight). [7% of pod weight = 80% of seeds/pod; 8.75% pod weight = seed weight]
(3) 250 g of seed = 7,000 seeds [28,000 seeds per kg ] (4)10-20 seeds per pod
[0.2-2 kg of pod per square meter = 0.0175- 0.175 kg od seeds per square meter = 490- 4900 seeds per square meter -- upper estimate is unlikely based on large pods and pictures of the plants, e.g. http://www.desert-tropicals.com/Plants/Fabaceae/Prosopis_juliflora2.jpg]

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Prosopis_juliflora.html
(2) Sharma, N. K.; Burman, U.; Tewari, J. C.; Bohra, M. D.; Harsh, L. N. (1994) Variability studies in pod and seed characteristics of Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. Indian Journal of Forestry, 1994, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 161-165, 4 ref.
(3) CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (4)http://www.ecoport.org/

8.02

"The viability of cleaned Prosopis seed is excellent after many years under normal refrigeration conditions. Scarification is required for seed emergence. Boiling water and acid scarification treatments can be used to enhance seed germination, but these treatments result in irregular germination over many weeks. If the blunt ends of the seeds are severed with a knife (at rate of about 300 per hour) virtually 100% emergence will occur in 4 days if the soil temperature is 30C." [legume seeds show apparent dormancy]

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

8.03

Chemica controll: P. juliflora: "Sensitive to triclopyr. HAVO staff reported control with basal bark application of triclopyr ester at 5% product in diesel oil. (Chris Zimmer, HAVO). Small plants (to 5 ft) on Kauai killed by foliar drizzle application of triclopyr ester at 15% in crop oil but it took a year. Tebuthiuron was also effective. (Motooka et al., 2002)

http://www.hear.org/pier/species/prosopis_spp.htm

8.04

AB: " Among the species studied, Azadirachta indica, Peltophorum pterocarpum, C. siamea, G. sepium, E. globulus, T. arjuna and Prosopis juliflora were considered as the total fire-tolerant species"

Nadaf, A. B. Madkaikar, S. A. (2002) Response of some fuelwood species to surface fire. International Journal of Forest Usufructs Management, 2002, Vol. 3, No. 1/2, pp. 124-126, 4 ref.

8.05

Bruchid beetles?