Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Neonotonia wightii (Glycine wightii); perennial soybean

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

n

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

y

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

7

Source

Notes

1.01

no evidence

1.02

(1)Ziegler, A. D.; Warren, S. D.; Perry, J. L.; Giambelluca, T. W. (2000) Reassessment of revegetation strategies for Kaho'olawe Island, Hawai'i. Journal of Range Management, 2000, Vol.53, No.1, pp.106-113, 19 ref. (2)Wagner et al. 1990 Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands

(1)"N. wightii and M. atropurpureum , both of which volunteer readily in planting sites" (2)naturalized in pastures, along roadside, and in other low elevation, disturbed areas at least on Oahu, Maui"

1.03

Cameron, D. G. (1984) Tropical and subtropical pasture legumes. 4. Glycine (Neonotonia wightii ): an outstanding but soil specific legume. Queensland Agricultural Journal, 1984, Vol.110, No.6, pp.311-316, 2 ref.

AB: "4 cv. of Glycine wightii [Neonotonia wightii ] (Tinaroo, Cooper, Clarence and Malawi) have been released in Australia. Tetraploid cv. Malawi and Clarence are less specific in their soil requirements than the diploid cv. Tinaroo and Cooper." [cultivars are known, but no indication of specific race being a weed]

2.01

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?104937 (13 February 2003)

Distributional range:
Native:
Africa: Angola; Botswana; Burundi; Cameroon; Chad; Ethiopia; Gabon; Ghana; Guinea; Kenya; Liberia; Malawi; Mozambique; Nigeria; Sierra Leone; Sudan; Tanzania; Togo; Uganda; Zaire; Zambia; Zimbabwe
Asia-Temperate: Arabia
Asia-Tropical: India; Indonesia - Java; Malaysia [Malaya]; Sri Lanka
Other: naturalized elsewhere

2.02

2.03

(1)Grassland Index. (The basic information in this index has been taken from two FAO publications "Tropical Grasses" (1990) by Skerman, P.J. and F. Riveros and "Tropical Forage Legumes" (1988) by Skerman, P.J., Cameron, D.G. and F. Riveros.). Available at: <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/Default.htm> (2)http://www.echonet.org/tropicalag/technotes/Forages.pdf (3)http://pppis.fao.org/

(1)Altitude response
In Kenya it grows from the lowlands up to 2 450 m at the latitude of the equator. In Colombia, it occurs from sea level to 1 800 m. (2)widely adapted, from drier regions of tropical and subtropical Africa, is a highly variable species of value because it is fairly long lived, mixes well with grasses, and is fairly drought resistant. It may be difficult to establish in hot, dry weather. (3)It is best adapted to summer rainfall areas. In Colombia it can be found from sea level to 1800 m in elevation.

2.04

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?104937 (13 February 2003)

Distributional range:
Native:
Africa: Angola; Botswana; Burundi; Cameroon; Chad; Ethiopia; Gabon; Ghana; Guinea; Kenya; Liberia; Malawi; Mozambique; Nigeria; Sierra Leone; Sudan; Tanzania; Togo; Uganda; Zaire; Zambia; Zimbabwe
Asia-Temperate: Arabia
Asia-Tropical: India; Indonesia - Java; Malaysia [Malaya]; Sri Lanka
Other: naturalized elsewhere

2.05

(1) Vizcaíno, A.; Palma, J. M.; Ruiz, T. E. (2001) Association of Gliricidia sepium with grasses and legumes in the dry Mexican tropics. Cuban Journal of Agricultural Science, 2001, Vol.35, No.2, pp.167-173, 12 ref.
(2) Carvalho, A. A. de, Jr.; Figueiredo, M. B. (2000) The real identity of the soybean rust in Brazil. [FT: A verdadeira identidade da ferrugem da soja no Brasil.] Summa Phytopathologica, 2000, Vol.26, No.2, pp.197-200, 16 ref.
(3) Ziegler, A. D.; Warren, S. D.; Perry, J. L.; Giambelluca, T. W. (2000) Reassessment of revegetation strategies for Kaho'olawe Island, Hawai'i. Journal of Range Management, 2000, Vol.53, No.1, pp.106-113, 19 ref.
(4) Cameron, D. G. (1984) Tropical and subtropical pasture legumes. 4. Glycine (Neonotonia wightii ): an outstanding but soil specific legume. Queensland Agricultural Journal, 1984, Vol.110, No.6, pp.311-316, 2 ref.

(1) Mexico, (2) Brazil, (3) Hawaii, (4) Australia

3.01

(1)Ziegler, A. D.; Warren, S. D.; Perry, J. L.; Giambelluca, T. W. (2000) Reassessment of revegetation strategies for Kaho'olawe Island, Hawai'i. Journal of Range Management, 2000, Vol.53, No.1, pp.106-113, 19 ref. (2)Wagner et al. 1990 Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands

(1)"N. wightii and M. atropurpureum , both of which volunteer readily in planting sites" (2)naturalized in pastures, along roadside, and in other low elevation, disturbed areas at least on Oahu, Maui"

3.02

(1) Ziegler, A. D.; Warren, S. D.; Perry, J. L.; Giambelluca, T. W. (2000) Reassessment of revegetation strategies for Kaho'olawe Island, Hawai'i. Journal of Range Management, 2000, Vol.53, No.1, pp.106-113, 19 ref. (2)Cameron, D. G. (1984) Tropical and subtropical pasture legumes. 4. Glycine (Neonotonia wightii ): an outstanding but soil specific legume. Queensland Agricultural Journal, 1984, Vol.110, No.6, pp.311-316, 2 ref.

(1) AB: "Neonotonia wightii and Macroptilium atropurpureum , both of which volunteer readily in planting sites, are considered invasive in that they may smother other more desirable species, particularly less competitive natives." (2)unwanted areas are eradicated with a spray of 1 kg 2,4,5-T/ha [sometimes controlled in disturbed areas]

3.03

no evidence

3.04

no evidence

3.05

no evidence

4.01

Grassland Index. (The basic information in this index has been taken from two FAO publications "Tropical Grasses" (1990) by Skerman, P.J. and F. Riveros and "Tropical Forage Legumes" (1988) by Skerman, P.J., Cameron, D.G. and F. Riveros.). Available at: <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/Default.htm>

no description of these traits

4.02

no evidence

4.03

no evidence

4.04

Grassland Index. (The basic information in this index has been taken from two FAO publications "Tropical Grasses" (1990) by Skerman, P.J. and F. Riveros and "Tropical Forage Legumes" (1988) by Skerman, P.J., Cameron, D.G. and F. Riveros.). Available at: <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/Default.htm>

4.05

Grassland Index. (The basic information in this index has been taken from two FAO publications "Tropical Grasses" (1990) by Skerman, P.J. and F. Riveros and "Tropical Forage Legumes" (1988) by Skerman, P.J., Cameron, D.G. and F. Riveros.). Available at: <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/Default.htm>

4.06

(1) Carvalho, A. A. de, Jr.; Figueiredo, M. B. (2000) The real identity of the soybean rust in Brazil. [FT: A verdadeira identidade da ferrugem da soja no Brasil.] Summa Phytopathologica, 2000, Vol.26, No.2, pp.197-200, 16 ref.
(2) Mabagala, R. B.; Saettler, A. W. (1992) The role of weeds in survival of Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola in Northern Tanzania. Plant Disease, 1992, Vol.76, No.7, pp.683-687, 26 ref.

(1) AB: "The announcement of the presence of P. pachyrhizi in Brazil caused impact because the high economical importance of soyabean as an export product. This species also occurs on other Leguminosae, including Glycine wightii (Neonotonia wightii)."
(2) AB: "Of 16 weed species belonging to 10 families, only Neonotonia wightii served as a perennial reservoir of P. s. pv. phaseolicola, the cause of halo blight of Phaseolus vulgaris."

4.07

no evidence

4.08

no evidence

4.09

(1) Bazill, J. A. E. (1987) Evaluation of tropical forage legumes under Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis in Turrialba, Costa Rica. Agroforestry Systems, 1987, Vol.5, No.2, pp.97-108, 28 ref.
(2) Whiteman, P. C.; Bohoquez, M.; Ranacou, E. N. (1974) Shading tolerance in four tropical pasture legume species. Proceedings of the 12th International Grassland Congress. Biological and physiological aspects of the intensification of grassland utilization., 1974, pp.402-407 (3)http://pppis.fao.org/

(1) AB: "As part of an investigation on the eventual use of shade-tolerant species as components of silvopastoral systems in Central America, 25 species/cultivars were sown in late Dec. 1983 in plots in the open and under an even cover of P. caribaea var. hondurensis (10 yr old, b.a. 30 m2/ha). Mean light intensity under the canopy was 18% full sunlight."; "Glycine wightii and Macroptilium atropurpureum did not perform particularly well. "
(2) AB: In pot trials with shading to give 100, 70, 50 or 30% of full sunlight and field trials with 100, 70, 48 or 19% of full sunlight, Desmodium intortum was most tolerant of shade and Macroptilium atropurpureum cv. Siratro was least tolerant while Centrosema pubescens and Glycine wightii were intermediate. In the 1st harvests of the pot trial, yields of G. wightii were lower with 100% sunlight than with shading. [intermediate performance but survive under shade] (3)Tolerates only light shade

4.1

(1)Grassland Index. (The basic information in this index has been taken from two FAO publications "Tropical Grasses" (1990) by Skerman, P.J. and F. Riveros and "Tropical Forage Legumes" (1988) by Skerman, P.J., Cameron, D.G. and F. Riveros.). Available at: <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/Default.htm> (2)http://www.echonet.org/seeds/OS_seed_catalogue/pasture&feed.htm (3)http://www.tocal.nsw.edu.au/reader/1570

(1)"Soil requirements Performs best in deep, freely drained latosolic soils derived from basic igneous rocks, on self-mulching black soils and fertile alluvial soils. It is not suited to acid podzolic soil or solodic soils. It prefers free-draining loams to clays of basaltic or alluvial origin. Prefers a pH above 6.5, but can grow at pH 6.0 if adequate lime is present. Souto and Döbereiner (1968) reported manganese toxicity at pH 5.1 to 5.7, which disappeared on liming to pH 6.5. " (2)requires moderately fertile soil with good drainage; does not tolerate acidic soils or waterlogging; (3)on fertile, deeper, well-drained soils  

4.11

Grassland Index. (The basic information in this index has been taken from two FAO publications "Tropical Grasses" (1990) by Skerman, P.J. and F. Riveros and "Tropical Forage Legumes" (1988) by Skerman, P.J., Cameron, D.G. and F. Riveros.). Available at: <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/Default.htm>

"Herbaceous perennial with strong taproot and trailing, climbing and twining stems. "

4.12

no evidence

5.01

terrestrial

5.02

perennial; Fabaceae

5.03

Grassland Index. (The basic information in this index has been taken from two FAO publications "Tropical Grasses" (1990) by Skerman, P.J. and F. Riveros and "Tropical Forage Legumes" (1988) by Skerman, P.J., Cameron, D.G. and F. Riveros.). Available at: <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/Default.htm>

Herbaceous perennial [not woody]

5.04

Grassland Index. (The basic information in this index has been taken from two FAO publications "Tropical Grasses" (1990) by Skerman, P.J. and F. Riveros and "Tropical Forage Legumes" (1988) by Skerman, P.J., Cameron, D.G. and F. Riveros.). Available at: <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/Default.htm>

"Herbaceous perennial with strong taproot and trailing, climbing and twining stems. "

6.01

no evidence

6.02

Grassland Index. (The basic information in this index has been taken from two FAO publications "Tropical Grasses" (1990) by Skerman, P.J. and F. Riveros and "Tropical Forage Legumes" (1988) by Skerman, P.J., Cameron, D.G. and F. Riveros.). Available at: <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/Default.htm>

established by sowing seeds that have been treated to break dormancy

6.03

no evidence

6.04

Grassland Index. (The basic information in this index has been taken from two FAO publications "Tropical Grasses" (1990) by Skerman, P.J. and F. Riveros and "Tropical Forage Legumes" (1988) by Skerman, P.J., Cameron, D.G. and F. Riveros.). Available at: <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/Default.htm>

6.05

Nogueira-Couto, R. H.; Pereira, J. M. S.; Jong, D. de (1998) Pollination of Glycine wightii , a perennial soyabean, by Africanized honey bees. Journal of Apicultural Research, 1998, Vol.37, No.4, pp.289-291, 4 ref.

AB: "When investigating pollination of G. wightii [Neonotonia wightii ], Lepidoptera, Vespidae, Diptera and Hymenoptera of the families Halictidae, Anthophoridae (Exomalopsis sp.), and Apidae (Apis mellifera scutellata ) collected nectar. A. m. scutellata comprised over 90% of the visitors observed. Bean pod production of flowers exposed to bees was increased approx equal to 56% and seeds per pod 45%"

6.06

Grassland Index. (The basic information in this index has been taken from two FAO publications "Tropical Grasses" (1990) by Skerman, P.J. and F. Riveros and "Tropical Forage Legumes" (1988) by Skerman, P.J., Cameron, D.G. and F. Riveros.). Available at: <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/Default.htm>

"runners frequently root at the nodes"

6.07

(1)http://www.tocal.nsw.edu.au/reader/1570 (2)Febles, G.; Perez, J.; Padilla, C. (1983) The effect of time of application of phosphoric fertilizer on Neonotonia wightii seed production. Cuban Journal of Agricultural Science, 1983, Vol.17, No.2, pp.183-190, 10 ref.

(1)The seedlings are slow to establish (2) "In the 1st yr, yield of seed plus pods was highest in the control (846 kg/ha) followed by (b) with 787 kg/ha. "

7.01

no evidence

7.02

a widely used forage species

7.03

no evidence

7.04

Grassland Index. (The basic information in this index has been taken from two FAO publications "Tropical Grasses" (1990) by Skerman, P.J. and F. Riveros and "Tropical Forage Legumes" (1988) by Skerman, P.J., Cameron, D.G. and F. Riveros.). Available at: <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/Default.htm>

Pods are hairy, straight or slightly curved, 1 to 4 cm long, about 3 mm wide, with three to eight seeds.

7.05

no evidence

7.06

no evidence

7.07

no evidence

7.08

no evidence

8.01

(1) Cameron, D. G. (1984) Tropical and subtropical pasture legumes. 4. Glycine (Neonotonia wightii ): an outstanding but soil specific legume. Queensland Agricultural Journal, 1984, Vol.110, No.6, pp.311-316, 2 ref.
(2) Grassland Index. (The basic information in this index has been taken from two FAO publications "Tropical Grasses" (1990) by Skerman, P.J. and F. Riveros and "Tropical Forage Legumes" (1988) by Skerman, P.J., Cameron, D.G. and F. Riveros.). Available at: <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/Default.htm>

(1) Seed yields of up to 300 kg/ha are obtained.
(2) Number of seeds per kg. 90 000 for flat-seeded Zimbabwean type to 330 000 for fine violet glycine ssp. micrantha (Bogdan, 1966). Percentage of hard seed is quite high.
[300x90000-330000/ha = 2700-9900 seeds/ square meter]

8.02

(1) Dudar, Y. A. (1982) Technical note on the germination dynamics in legume seeds. [FT: Nota tecnica acerca de la dinamica de germinacion en semillas de leguminosas.] Pastos y Forrajes, 1982, Vol.5, No.1, pp.39-47, 10 ref.
(2) Ararat R., J. E.; Malaver H., L. V. (1975) Response of the seed of five forage legume species to treatment for germination. [FT: Respuesta de las semillas de cinco especies de leguminosas forrajeras a tratamientos para germinacion.] Acta Agronomica, 1975, Vol.25, No.1/4, pp.1-12, 15 ref. (3)http://www.tocal.nsw.edu.au/reader/1570

(1)AB: "Seeds of (a) Glycine wightii cv. Tinaroo, (b) Macroptilium atropurpureum and (c) Centrosema pubescens were placed to germinate in soil at 6 cm depth in March. total germination over 10 months was in the order (c) > (b) > (a) (>95, >75 and 24%, resp.)."
(2) AB: Seeds of Calopogonium mucunoides, Centrosema plumieri, Desmodium tortuosum, Glycine wightii and Pueraria phaseoloides were subjected to various treatments, and then germinated in soil or on paper towels. D. tortuosum, G. wightii and P. phaseoloides, which had a lower content of hard seeds, showed an increase in germination when treated with 5% sulphuric acid. Seeds of G. wightii were the most difficult to germinate and showed little or no response to the treatments.
[show a strong dormancy] (3)Glycine seed can be very hard and may require some scarification before sowing.

8.03

Cameron, D. G. (1984) Tropical and subtropical pasture legumes. 4. Glycine (Neonotonia wightii ): an outstanding but soil specific legume. Queensland Agricultural Journal, 1984, Vol.110, No.6, pp.311-316, 2 ref.

"Plants in unwanted areas are eradicated with a spray of 1 kg 2,4,5-T/ha. "

8.04

(1)Grassland Index. (The basic information in this index has been taken from two FAO publications "Tropical Grasses" (1990) by Skerman, P.J. and F. Riveros and "Tropical Forage Legumes" (1988) by Skerman, P.J., Cameron, D.G. and F. Riveros.). Available at: <http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/Default.htm> (2)http://www.tocal.nsw.edu.au/reader/1570

(1)Response to fire: Moderate. Van Rensburg (1967) reports that, even at the height of the dry season, it produces green growth after burning. This would be governed by the store of subsoil moisture and how well the plants were established. (2)Succumbs to continuous heavy grazing; susceptible to overgrazing; They should not be grazed too severely, so that there is plenty of vine and some leaf remaining to allow good regrowth. The more leaf left on the plant, the faster the regrowth.

8.05

no evidence