Nassella tenuissima (Trin.) Barkworth. Family - Poaceae. Common Names(s) - Mexican feather grass, Mexican needle grass, silky thread grass. Synonym(s) - Stipa tenuissima Trin.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

1

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

1

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

n

0

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

1.5

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2.5

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2.5

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

1.5

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

y

1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

24

Notes

Source

1.01

No evidence

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)Nassella tenuissima is native to New Mexico, Texas, Mexico, Argentina and Chile, has been cultivated in California and New Zealand, and also has been recorded from South Africa (Connor & Ford 1996) where it is apparently only known from one locality (N. Barker, pers. comm.). (2)Referenced growing climates: Mediterranean (3)Habitat: Full Sun. Rocky open slopes, shallow woodlands and forest openings up to an elevation of 7,000 feet. A Xeriscape Landscape plant. Native of Texas, New Mexico, (Chihuahuan Desert) Mexico, Argentina. (4)Range extends marginally into subtropical areas

(1)Jacobs, S.W.L., J. Everett and María Amelia Torres. 1998. Nassella tenuissima (Gramineae) recorded from Australia, a potential new weed related to Serrated Tussock. Telopea 8(1): 41–46.(2)Barker, J., R. Randall and Tony Grice. 2006. Weeds of the future? Threats to Australia’s grazing industries by garden plants. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited .NORTH SYDNEY, NSW. (3)http://www.delange.org/GrassMexThread/GrassMexThread.htm [Accessed 03 June 2008] (4)Horticopia Professional. 2004. Version 4.1 Build 102

2.02

Native range extends marginally into subtropical areas.

2.03

(1)Hardiness: USDA Zones 7 - 11. Mexican feather grass will stay green in winter, but go dormant during the heat of the summer.(2)In Argentina it grows in the Central, Western, Southern and Northwestern regions, extending from about 26°50'S to 47°34'S, and from near sea level to about 2900 m altitude...In the southern United States it grows over an altitude range of 600–2350 m (3)Tolerate climate extremes from hot to cold, poor soils, damp to drought, wind, salt, fire, and damage,

(1)http://www.floridata.com/ref/N/nass_ten.cfm [Accessed 03 June 2008](2)Jacobs, S.W.L., J. Everett and María Amelia Torres. 1998. Nassella tenuissima (Gramineae) recorded from Australia, a potential new weed related to Serrated Tussock. Telopea 8(1): 41–46.(3)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=33 [Accessed 03 June 2008]

2.04

(1)It is fortunate that this is one of those rare occasions where the establishment of a potential weed species has been well documented. Ford (1994) documented the first recording of its spread from cultivation in New Zealand in a commercial nursery and noted that it was not included in the treatment of stipoid grasses in New Zealand (Jacobs et al. 1989). Gardner et al. (1996) supplied the first published identification, reported a second locality of naturalisation and predicted that it would soon be widespread. Connor and Ford (1996, 1997) reviewed the situation, including recent changes in the classification and nomenclature in the stipoid grasses and pleaded for vigilance in recording all introduced stipoid species. De Lange and Gardner (1997) despairingly documented the continued spread of the species, both from known sites and from previously unrecorded sites, and the apparent lack of action by both responsible authorities and the nursery industry. (2)Naturalised populations of Nassella tenuissima were discovered only eight years after it had been imported to Australia as an ornamental tussock grass. (3)Abstract: A taxonomic revision of the naturalized representatives of the South American genera Jarava Ruiz & Pav. and Nassella (Trin.) E. Desv. (segregates of Stipa L. s.l.) in Europe revealed several interesting data. Eight taxa are currently regarded as, at least locally, naturalized in the Iberian Peninsula, Macaronesia, France (incl. Corsica) and/or Italy: Jarava ambigua (Speg.) Peñail., J. brachychaeta (Godr.) Peñail., J. caudata (Trin.) Peñail. and J. plumosa (Spreng.) S. W. L. Jacobs & J. Everett, and Nassella neesiana (Trin. & Rupr.) Barkworth, N. poeppigiana (Trin. & Rupr.) Barkworth, N. tenuissima (Trin.) Barkworth and N. trichotoma (Nees) Arechav. Nassella mucronata (Kunth) R. W. Pohl has not been confirmed, all actual European populations being definitely ascribable to the closely related N. neesiana. Particular attention is paid to the confusion of both taxa in Europe and useful diacritic features for their distinction are discussed. Only two taxa have become more or less widespread to date (N. neesiana and N. trichotoma), both being present respectively in all or nearly all investigated countries. Two further taxa (Jarava brachychaeta and J. caudata) also tend to increase. Jarava ambigua (confused with J. brachychaeta in S-France) is cited for the first time as a naturalized alien in Europe. All taxa but Nassella tenuissima (which is an escape from cultivation) are believed to have been introduced unintentionally; all are of American origin. Each taxon is described and a dichotomous key, original line drawings of all species' anthecia and further chorological, nomenclatural, taxonomic and ecological data are provided.

(1)Jacobs, S.W.L., J. Everett and María Amelia Torres. 1998. Nassella tenuissima (Gramineae) recorded from Australia, a potential new weed related to Serrated Tussock. Telopea 8(1): 41–46.(2)Barker, J., R. Randall and Tony Grice. 2006. Weeds of the future? Threats to Australia’s grazing industries by garden plants. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited .NORTH SYDNEY, NSW. (3)Verloove, F, 2005. A synopsis of Jarava Ruiz & Pav. and Nassella E. Desv. (Stipa L. s.l.) (Poaceae: Stipeae) in southwestern Europe. Candollea 60(1): 97-117.

2.05

(1)Introduced to Australia (Jacobs & al., 1998), New Zealand (Ford 1994; Connor & Ford, 1996; Gardner & al., 1996), and South Africa (Connor & Ford, 1996). Cultivated in California (Barkworth, pers. observ.) and New Zealand (Connor & Ford, 1996; Edgar & Connor, 2000).

(1)Barkworth, M. E. and M. A. Torres. 2001. Distribution and Diagnostic Characters of Nassella (Poaceae: Stipeae). Taxon 50(2): 439-468.

3.01

(1)It is fortunate that this is one of those rare occasions where the establishment of a potential weed species has been well documented. Ford (1994) documented the first recording of its spread from cultivation in New Zealand in a commercial nursery and noted that it was not included in the treatment of stipoid grasses in New Zealand (Jacobs et al. 1989). Gardner et al. (1996) supplied the first published identification, reported a second locality of naturalisation and predicted that it would soon be widespread. Connor and Ford (1996, 1997) reviewed the situation, including recent changes in the classification and nomenclature in the stipoid grasses and pleaded for vigilance in recording all introduced stipoid species. De Lange and Gardner (1997) despairingly documented the continued spread of the species, both from known sites and from previously unrecorded sites, and the apparent lack of action by both responsible authorities and the nursery industry. (2)Naturalised populations of Nassella tenuissima were discovered only eight years after it had been imported to Australia as an ornamental tussock grass. (3)Abstract: A taxonomic revision of the naturalized representatives of the South American genera Jarava Ruiz & Pav. and Nassella (Trin.) E. Desv. (segregates of Stipa L. s.l.) in Europe revealed several interesting data. Eight taxa are currently regarded as, at least locally, naturalized in the Iberian Peninsula, Macaronesia, France (incl. Corsica) and/or Italy: Jarava ambigua (Speg.) Peñail., J. brachychaeta (Godr.) Peñail., J. caudata (Trin.) Peñail. and J. plumosa (Spreng.) S. W. L. Jacobs & J. Everett, and Nassella neesiana (Trin. & Rupr.) Barkworth, N. poeppigiana (Trin. & Rupr.) Barkworth, N. tenuissima (Trin.) Barkworth and N. trichotoma (Nees) Arechav. Nassella mucronata (Kunth) R. W. Pohl has not been confirmed, all actual European populations being definitely ascribable to the closely related N. neesiana. Particular attention is paid to the confusion of both taxa in Europe and useful diacritic features for their distinction are discussed. Only two taxa have become more or less widespread to date (N. neesiana and N. trichotoma), both being present respectively in all or nearly all investigated countries. Two further taxa (Jarava brachychaeta and J. caudata) also tend to increase. Jarava ambigua (confused with J. brachychaeta in S-France) is cited for the first time as a naturalized alien in Europe. All taxa but Nassella tenuissima (which is an escape from cultivation) are believed to have been introduced unintentionally; all are of American origin. Each taxon is described and a dichotomous key, original line drawings of all species' anthecia and further chorological, nomenclatural, taxonomic and ecological data are provided.

(1)Jacobs, S.W.L., J. Everett and María Amelia Torres. 1998. Nassella tenuissima (Gramineae) recorded from Australia, a potential new weed related to Serrated Tussock. Telopea 8(1): 41–46. (2)Barker, J., R. Randall and Tony Grice. 2006. Weeds of the future? Threats to Australia’s grazing industries by garden plants. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited .NORTH SYDNEY, NSW.(3)Verloove, F, 2005. A synopsis of Jarava Ruiz & Pav. and Nassella E. Desv. (Stipa L. s.l.) (Poaceae: Stipeae) in southwestern Europe. Candollea 60(1): 97-117.

3.02

(1)WARNING Mexican feather grass often self sows abundantly and may spread out of its designated place in the garden. It's best to plant this one where you don't mind its invasive tendency. (2)Nassella tenuissima can be a weed in its native range at sites under high disturbance, such as that caused by overgrazing. [answer yes to 3.04]

(1)http://www.floridata.com/ref/N/nass_ten.cfm [Accessed 03 June 2008] (2)http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=463&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN [Accessed 03 June 2008]

3.03

(1)Nassella tenuissima is unpalatable to livestock and it aggressively competes with desirable pastoral species. If livestock are forced to feed on N. tenuissima, the undigested plant matter will cause serious illness or death. Sharp seeds may also cause injury to stock – including blindness – and devalue wool and pelts...It has established itself in agricultural areas, rangelands and grasslands, forests, shrublands and along waterways. (2)t is an extremely vigorous, invasive plant, which crowds out desirable pasture species, reducing stock carrying capacity.

(1)Barker, J., R. Randall and Tony Grice. 2006. Weeds of the future? Threats to Australia’s grazing industries by garden plants. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited .NORTH SYDNEY, NSW. (2)http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=463&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN [Accessed 03 June 2008]

3.04

(1)N. tenuissima is a declared weed in South Africa where it threatens native grasslands (2)Form pure stands in low-growing plant communities, especially in harsh sites, and prevent the seedlings of native species establishing.(3)It is an extremely vigorous, invasive plant, which crowds out desirable pasture species, reducing stock carrying capacity. It can also crowd out native grasses in coastal or open areas.

(1)Barker, J., R. Randall and Tony Grice. 2006. Weeds of the future? Threats to Australia’s grazing industries by garden plants. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited .NORTH SYDNEY, NSW. (2)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=33 [Accessed 03 June 2008] (3)http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=463&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN [Accessed 03 June 2008]

3.05

(1)Nassella tenuissima is closely related to N. trichotoma (Serrated Tussock), a serious pasture and environmental weed in temperate Australia, and looks so similar, especially when not flowering, that it could be mistaken in the field for N. trichotoma.

threatens native grasslands

4.01

(1)Sharp seeds may also cause injury to stock – including blindness – and devalue wool and pelts.

(1)Barker, J., R. Randall and Tony Grice. 2006. Weeds of the future? Threats to Australia’s grazing industries by garden plants. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited .NORTH SYDNEY, NSW.

4.02

No evidence [well-studied agricultural and environmental weed]

4.03

No evidence

4.04

(1)Nassella tenuissima is unpalatable to livestock and it aggressively competes with desirable pastoral species. If livestock are forced to feed on N. tenuissima, the undigested plant matter will cause serious illness or death. Sharp seeds may also cause injury to stock – including blindness – and devalue wool and pelts. (2)In Argentina N. tenuissima is regarded as an unpalatable grass (Moretto and Distel 1998). It has been classified as a non-preferred species that can become dominant under continual heavy grazing pressure with a low frequency of high intensity fi re (Distel and Boo 1995). Similarly, it is regarded as a species that is rarely eaten by deer in Texas (Simons 1996). N. tenuissima is less palatable than serrated tussock in Argentina (Distel personal communication).

(1)Barker, J., R. Randall and Tony Grice. 2006. Weeds of the future? Threats to Australia’s grazing industries by garden plants. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited .NORTH SYDNEY, NSW. (2)McLarenD. A., V. Stajsic and L. Iaconis. 2004. The distribution, impacts and identification of exotic stipoid grasses in Australia. Plant Protection Quarterly 19(2): 59-66.

4.05

No evidence [well-studied agricultural and environmental weed]

4.06

(1)In a preliminary hostspecificity test, Anderson et al. (2002) demonstrated that the South American native Nassella tenuissima (Trin.) Barkworth was susceptible to a smut isolate from N. trichotoma. [no evidence of being a host for important crop pathogens]

(1)Anderson, F., W. Pettit, L. Morin, D. Briese and D. McLaren. 2004. Pathogens for the biological control of weedy stipoid grasses in Australia: completion of investigations in Argentina. Pp. 69-74 in J.M. Cullen, D.T. Briese, D.J. Kriticos, W.M. Lonsdale, L. Morin and J.K. Scott. (eds.). Proceedings of the XI International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. CSIRO Entomology, Canberra, Australia, 648 pp.

4.07

No evidence [well-studied agricultural and environmental weed]

4.08

Ability to form dense stands and thrive in arid environments increases fire hazard(1) N. tenuissima has been shown to be invasive in fire-driven or littoral ecosystems and habitats, which has precipitated concern in South Africa that it could threaten native grassland habitats. (2)Long-lived and form pure colonies, producing masses of highly viable, long-lived, well dispersed seed...Form pure stands in low-growing plant communities, especially in harsh sites, and prevent the seedlings of native species establishing.

(1)Milton, S. J. 2004. Grasses as invasive alien plants in South Africa. South African Journal of Science 100: 69-75. (2)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=33 [Accessed 03 June 2008]

4.09

(1)Light: Full sun to partial shade. (2)It prefers well-drained soil and sunny, dry conditions with limited vegetation cover (3)intolerant of moderate-shade

(1)http://www.floridata.com/ref/N/nass_ten.cfm [Accessed 03 June 2008] (2)Barker, J., R. Randall and Tony Grice. 2006. Weeds of the future? Threats to Australia’s grazing industries by garden plants. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited .NORTH SYDNEY, NSW. (3)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=33 [Accessed 03 June 2008]

4.10

(1)In Texas, N. tenuissima is reported (Hitchcock & Chase 1951; Correll & Johnston 1970; Martin & Hutchins 1980; Connor & Ford 1996, 1997) from open rocky flats and slopes, on mountains, plateaux and arid valleys with an average rainfall of 300 mm, with soils and sites of extreme variability.(2)N. tenuissima is very adaptable and tolerant of many soil types and climactic extremes including drought.

(1)Jacobs, S.W.L., J. Everett and María Amelia Torres. 1998. Nassella tenuissima (Gramineae) recorded from Australia, a potential new weed related to Serrated Tussock. Telopea 8(1): 41–46.(2)Barker, J., R. Randall and Tony Grice. 2006. Weeds of the future? Threats to Australia’s grazing industries by garden plants. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited .NORTH SYDNEY, NSW.

4.11

Not a vine

4.12

(1)It grows in a dense fountainlike clump with slender, wiry culms 1-2 ft (0.3-0.6 m) tall.(2)Densely caespitose perennial with very numerous, often sterile, intravaginal innovations and wiry roots, the tussocks to 70 cm tall.(3)Long-lived and form pure colonies, producing masses of highly viable, long-lived, well dispersed seed...Form pure stands in low-growing plant communities, especially in harsh sites, and prevent the seedlings of native species establishing.

(1)http://www.floridata.com/ref/N/nass_ten.cfm [Accessed 03 June 2008] (2)Jacobs, S.W.L., J. Everett and María Amelia Torres. 1998. Nassella tenuissima (Gramineae) recorded from Australia, a potential new weed related to Serrated Tussock. Telopea 8(1): 41–46. (3)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=33 [Accessed 03 June 2008]

5.01

Terrestrial

5.02

Poaceae

5.03

Poaceae

5.04

Not a geophyte.

6.01

No evidence

6.02

(1)Propagation: Mexican feather grass is usually propagated from seed. Large, well established plants may be divided, but this is not always successful.

(1)http://www.floridata.com/ref/N/nass_ten.cfm [Accessed 03 June 2008]

6.03

Unknown [evidence of hybridization between other Nassella species] (1)Closely related species, N. lepida (Hitchc.) Barkworth and N. cernua (Stebbins & Love) Barkworth, share similar distributions (primarily within California) and occasionally hybridize with N. pulchra

(1)Love M. R. 1954. Interspecific hybridization in Stipa II. Hybrids of S.cernua, S.lepida, and S.pulchra. American Journal of Botany, 41, 107–110.

6.04

Possibly (1)There is evidence of both cleistogamy and chasmogamy in N. tenuissima.

(1)Jacobs, S.W.L., J. Everett and María Amelia Torres. 1998. Nassella tenuissima (Gramineae) recorded from Australia, a potential new weed related to Serrated Tussock. Telopea 8(1): 41–46.

6.05

Poaceae - wind-pollinated

6.06

No evidence [reproduces by seed]

6.07

(1)grows quickly and blooms the first year from seed. So it can be grown as an annual.

(1)http://www.dianeseeds.com/stipa-tenuissima.html [Accessed 03 June 2008]

7.01

(1)Seeds are dispersed by wind, water, machinery, contaminated soil and animals (2)Seed is spread on clothing, footwear, vehicles, wind and water.

(1)Barker, J., R. Randall and Tony Grice. 2006. Weeds of the future? Threats to Australia’s grazing industries by garden plants. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited .NORTH SYDNEY, NSW. (2)Groves, R.H., Boden, R. & Lonsdale, W.M. 2005. Jumping the Garden Fence: Invasive Garden Plants in Australia and their environmental and agricultural impacts. CSIRO report prepared for WWF-Australia. WWF-Australia, Sydney.

7.02

Popular ornamental. (1)Mexican feather grass is one of the finest textured of the ornamental grasses.

(1)http://www.floridata.com/ref/N/nass_ten.cfm [Accessed 03 June 2008]

7.03

(1)Sharp seeds may also cause injury to stock – including blindness – and devalue wool and pelts [conaminant of wool and other animal products]

(1)Barker, J., R. Randall and Tony Grice. 2006. Weeds of the future? Threats to Australia’s grazing industries by garden plants. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited .NORTH SYDNEY, NSW.

7.04

(1)Some consolation may also be taken by the apparent lack of long distance wind dispersal in N. tenuissima but, as noted above, this is not definitely proved, and de Lange and Gardner (1997) document establishment at sites in New Zealand apparently well away from known plantings. (2)Seeds are dispersed by wind, water, machinery, contaminated soil and animals

(1)Jacobs, S.W.L., J. Everett and María Amelia Torres. 1998. Nassella tenuissima (Gramineae) recorded from Australia, a potential new weed related to Serrated Tussock. Telopea 8(1): 41–46. (2)Barker, J., R. Randall and Tony Grice. 2006. Weeds of the future? Threats to Australia’s grazing industries by garden plants. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited .NORTH SYDNEY, NSW.

7.05

(1)Seeds are dispersed by wind, water, machinery, contaminated soil and animals(2)Seed is spread on clothing, footwear, vehicles, wind and water.

(1)Barker, J., R. Randall and Tony Grice. 2006. Weeds of the future? Threats to Australia’s grazing industries by garden plants. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited .NORTH SYDNEY, NSW. (2)Groves, R.H., Boden, R. & Lonsdale, W.M. 2005. Jumping the Garden Fence: Invasive Garden Plants in Australia and their environmental and agricultural impacts. CSIRO report prepared for WWF-Australia. WWF-Australia, Sydney.

7.06

No evidence [no adaptations for bird dispersal] (1)Alternatively they make a useful winter food source for finches and other seed-eating birds [birds are seed predators rather than dispersers]

(1)http://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/plants/plant_finder/plant_pages/890.shtml [Accessed 03 June 2008]

7.07

(1)Seeds are dispersed by wind, water, machinery, contaminated soil and animals (2)Seed is spread on clothing, footwear, vehicles, wind and water.(3)Drooping flowering stems (to 1 m) with open seedheads are produced from November to January, with the seeds ripening to purple with bristles (3 cm long) that allow them to hook onto clothing and animal pelts.

(1)Barker, J., R. Randall and Tony Grice. 2006. Weeds of the future? Threats to Australia’s grazing industries by garden plants. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited .NORTH SYDNEY, NSW. (2)Groves, R.H., Boden, R. & Lonsdale, W.M. 2005. Jumping the Garden Fence: Invasive Garden Plants in Australia and their environmental and agricultural impacts. CSIRO report prepared for WWF-Australia. WWF-Australia, Sydney. (3)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=33 [Accessed 03 June 2008]

7.08

(1)Seeds are also spread by machinery, in hay, water, mud and in the droppings of animals.

(1)http://www.invasivespecies.net/database/species/ecology.asp?si=463&fr=1&sts= [Accessed 03 June 2008]

8.01

(1)N. tenuissima produces many thousands of seeds annually

(1)Barker, J., R. Randall and Tony Grice. 2006. Weeds of the future? Threats to Australia’s grazing industries by garden plants. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited .NORTH SYDNEY, NSW.

8.02

(1)Cut rootstock and roots not completely grubbed from soil will resprout, and seed bank reinfests bared, burned or sprayed areas. Fire enhances seeding. Do not burn as fire enhances seedings, and exclude all livestock. Plant dense low cover where appropriate after control. Follow up on open sites for at least 10 years.

(1)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=33 [Accessed 03 June2008]

8.03

(1)Larger infestations should be treated with a herbicide before flowering and seeding. (2)What can I do to get rid of it? : 1. Grub (all year round): Remove soil from roots. Leave on site to rot down. 2. Weed wipe (dense infestations) (all year round): glyphosate (333ml/L + penetrant). 3. Spray dense spots amongst desirable broadleaved species (spring-summer): Gallant (5ml/L + crop oil). 4. Spray dense infestations only (all year round): glyphosate (15ml/L + penetrant).

(1)Barker, J., R. Randall and Tony Grice. 2006. Weeds of the future? Threats to Australia’s grazing industries by garden plants. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited .NORTH SYDNEY, NSW. (2)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=33 [Accessed 03 June2008]

8.04

(1)Tolerate climate extremes from hot to cold, poor soils, damp to drought, wind, salt, fire, and damage, but are intolerant of moderate-shade and waterlogged soils...Cut rootstock and roots not completely grubbed from soil will resprout, and seed bank reinfests bared, burned or sprayed areas. Fire enhances seeding. Do not burn as fire enhances seedings, and exclude all livestock.

(1)http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=33 [Accessed 03 June2008]

8.05

Unknown