Mikania micrantha H.B.K. Family - Asteraceae Common Names(s) - American rope, Chinese creeper, mile-a-minute weed, Chinesischer Sommerefeu (German), fue saina (Niuean), liane americaine (French), mile-a-minute weed (English), ovaova (Fijian), usuvanua (Fijian), wa bosucu (Fijian), wa mbosuthu (Fijian), wa mbosuvu (Fijian), wa mbutako (Fijian), wa ndamele (Fijian) Synonym (s) Mikania scandens

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

n

0

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

25

Notes

Source

1.01

No evidence.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1) Native to : Mexico; Belize; Costa Rica; El Salvador; Guatemala; Mexico; Cuba; Dominica; Grenada; Guadeloupe; Martinique; St. Lucia; French Guiana; Guyana; Suriname; Venezuela; Brazil; Bolivia; Colombia; Ecuador; Peru; Argentina.

(1) http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?316383 [Cited 2009 October 16].

2.02

(1) Native to : Mexico; Belize; Costa Rica; El Salvador; Guatemala; Mexico; Cuba; Dominica; Grenada; Guadeloupe; Martinique; St. Lucia; French Guiana; Guyana; Suriname; Venezuela; Brazil; Bolivia; Colombia; Ecuador; Peru; Argentina.

(1) http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?316383 [Cited 2009 October 16].

2.03

(1) Humid, sunny or shaded habitats up to 2000 m altitude, characterized by disturbed forest, stream banks, roadsides, pastures, plantations and cultivated crops are known habitat.

(1) http://www.lovegreenjapanktm.org.np/articles/article%20on%20maykaniya%20micraramtha.pdf [Cited 2009 October 16].

2.04

(1) Native to : Mexico; Belize; Costa Rica; El Salvador; Guatemala; Mexico; Cuba; Dominica; Grenada; Guadeloupe; Martinique; St. Lucia; French Guiana; Guyana; Suriname; Venezuela; Brazil; Bolivia; Colombia; Ecuador; Peru; Argentina. Naturalized in tropical Asia, see. United States, West Indies, Mascarenes, Melanesia, Polynesia.

(1) http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?316383 [Cited 2009 October 16].

2.05

(1) "Mikania micrantha is used as a fodder in many countries. Sheep preferentially grazed Mikania in Malaysia and other cattle also relish it. In Kerala, India, the weed is utilized as a fodder in some parts of the state, especially during summer when availability of grass is scarce. However, Mikania is known to cause hepatotoxicity and liver damage in dairy cattle. The antibacterial effect of Mikania and its efficacy in wound healing has been reported. In Assam (NE India), Kabi tribes use the leaf juice of Mikania as an antidote for insect bite and scorpion sting. The leaves are also used for treating stomachache. Use of juice of Mikania as a curative agent for itches is reported from Malaysia. However, in all such cases therapeutic evidences are scarce or lacking. In Africa, Mikania leaves are used as a vegetable for making soups. The weed is used as a cover crop in rubber plantations in Malaysia. It is also planted on slopes to prevent soil erosion. Mikania green manure has been reported to increase the yield of rice in Mizoram, India."

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf.[Cited 2009 October 16].

3.01

(1) Naturalized in tropical Asia, s.e. United States, West Indies, Mascarenes, Melanesia, Polynesia.

(1) http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?316383 [Cited 2009 October 16].

3.02

(1) Mikania thrives in open areas as well as in partial shade and disturbed areas. It can grow in deep shade although it is unlikely to flower in those areas.

(1) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Mikania-Vine-PP143.pdf [Cited 2009 October 16].

3.03

(1) Mikania can smother and penetrate tree crowns and choke and topple plants. It reduces the growth and productivity of oil palm, rubber, citrus, cassava, teak, eucalyptus, acacia, albizia, pineapple, coconut and plantain in its introduced regions. The annual cost of controlling Mikania in Malaysia is estimated to be around 8 - 10 million dollars.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf 16].[Cited 2009 October

3.04

(1) Infestation by Mikania in natural forests in northeastern India caused a reduction in species richness, habitat destruction and microsite formation. (2) Mikania Is a serious threat to Australia, particularly the Wet Tropics World Heritage areas in Queensland. The vine has the ability to spread rapidly and smother native vegetation and crops.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf. [Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Mikania-Vine-PP143.pdf [Cited 2009 October 16].

3.05

(1) Mikania cordata is a noxious weed in Florida. (2) Mikania cordata is on the Northern Australian quarantine strategy weed list for control efforts. (3) Mikania cordata is a serious weed of tea, rubber and forest crops in Bangladesh.

(1) http://www.iswgfla.org/Prohibited%20species.htm [Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y5968e/y5968e0u.htm [Cited 2009 October 16]. (3) http://www.gisp.org/publications/reports/SOUTH_AN.PDF [Cited 2009 October 6].

4.01

(1) Mikania micrantha " is a perennial twining herb with 5-ribbed branches, pubescent or glabrous; internodes are 7.5 - 21.5 cm long. Leaves are opposite, ovate-deltoid, 6 - 15 x 3 - 9 cm, base cordate, apex acuminate, margins are coarsely dentate, crenate or sub-entire, glabrous on both sides, minutely glandular beneath and 3 - 5 nerved from the base; the petiole is 3 - 7 cm long. The inflorescence is axillary panicled corymb; capitula is cylindrical, 1.5 mm across; axillary panicled corymb; capitula is cylindrical, 1.5 mm across; there are 4 flowers per capitula; 4 involucral bracts, oblong to obovate, acute, green in colour, 1 - 3 mm long with a fifth smaller one that is 1 - 2 mm long; the corolla is 5 -lobed, white, often with a purple tinge, 4 - 5 mm long; achenes 2 - 3 mm long, narrowly oblong, 4 -angled, black, glabrous; pappus capillary, uniseriate, connate at base, 3 mm long, white at first, becoming reddish-brown."

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf 16].[Cited 2009 October

4.02

(1) Impacts to tree growth in Mikania infested forests is attributed to allelopathic substances produced by the plant. (2) The debris from the vine produces toxins that inhibit the growth of vegetation.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf. [Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Mikania-Vine-PP143.pdf [Cited 2009 October 16].

4.03

(1) The obligate, parasite, Cuscuta campestris has been studied as a potential biocontrol agent for Mikania micrantha. Once an association has been established between Mikania and Cuscuta, the parasite is able to severely restrain the growth of Mikania, inhibit its flowering, and result in almost complete death of its aerial parts during a growing season. Field studies are needed to understand application methods, effectiveness and its effects on the Mikania community structure and function. Mikania is not parasitic.

4.04

(1) Heavy grazing and browsing promotes the spread of Mikania into new ecosystems. Mikania is used as fodder in many countries. Sheep preferentially graze Mikania in Malaysia and cattle also enjoy it.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf. [Cited 2009 October 16].

4.05

(1) Mikania micrantha is known to cause hepatoxicity and liver damage in dairy cattle.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf 16].[Cited 2009 October

4.06

Unknown

4.07

(1) Mikania leaves are used in soup in Africa. The leaves are also used for treating stomachache, the juice is used for itches and as an antidote for insect bite and scorpion sting. (2) No evidence of allergies or toxicity in PubMed.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania. [Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez [Cited 2009 October 16].

4.08

No evidence in the literature.

4.09

(1) Mikania can not tolerate shade. It does not penetrate undisturbed natural forest areas. (2) Mikania thrives in open areas as well as in partial shade and disturbed areas. It can grow in deep shade although it is unlikely to flower in those areas. (3) Mikania micrantha grows best in sunny locations, but can tolerate shady habitats.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf. [Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Mikania-Vine-PP143.pdf [Cited 2009 October 16]. (3)Zhang, L.Y., Ye, W.H., Cao, H.L., Feng, H.L. 2003. Mikania micrantha H. B. K. in China - an overview. Weed Research. 44:42-49.

4.10

(1) Mikania grows on leached and nutrient poor sandy loam to clayey soils. (2) Mikania micrantha can grow in most types of soils, with either acidic or alkaline (pH 4.15-8.35).

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf .[Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) Zhang, L.Y., Ye, W.H., Cao, H.L., Feng, H.L. 2003. Mikania micrantha H. B. K. in China - an overview. Weed Research. 44:42-49.

4.11

(1) Mikania micrantha " is a perennial twining herb with 5-ribbed branches, pubescent or glabrous; internodes are 7.5 - 21.5 cm long. Leaves are opposite, ovate-deltoid, 6 - 15 x 3 - 9 cm, base cordate, apex acuminate, margins are coarsely dentate, crenate or sub-entire, glabrous on both sides, minutely glandular beneath and 3 - 5 nerved from the base; the petiole is 3 - 7 cm long. The inflorescence is axillary panicled corymb; capitula is cylindrical, 1.5 mm across; axillary panicled corymb; capitula is cylindrical, 1.5 mm across; there are 4 flowers per capitula; 4 involucral bracts, oblong to obovate, acute, green in colour, 1 - 3 mm long with a fifth smaller one that is 1 - 2 mm long; the corolla is 5 -lobed, white, often with a purple tinge, 4 - 5 mm long; achenes 2 - 3 mm long, narrowly oblong, 4 -angled, black, glabrous; pappus capillary, uniseriate, connate at base, 3 mm long, white at first, becoming reddish-brown."

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf 16].[Cited 2009 October

4.12

(1) Mikania micrantha " is a perennial twining herb with 5-ribbed branches, pubescent or glabrous; internodes are 7.5 - 21.5 cm long. Leaves are opposite, ovate-deltoid, 6 - 15 x 3 - 9 cm, base cordate, apex acuminate, margins are coarsely dentate, crenate or sub-entire, glabrous on both sides, minutely glandular beneath and 3 - 5 nerved from the base; the petiole is 3 - 7 cm long. The inflorescence is axillary panicled corymb; capitula is cylindrical, 1.5 mm across; axillary panicled corymb; capitula is cylindrical, 1.5 mm across; there are 4 flowers per capitula; 4 involucral bracts, oblong to obovate, acute, green in colour, 1 - 3 mm long with a fifth smaller one that is 1 - 2 mm long; the corolla is 5 -lobed, white, often with a purple tinge, 4 - 5 mm long; achenes 2 - 3 mm long, narrowly oblong, 4 -angled, black, glabrous; pappus capillary, uniseriate, connate at base, 3 mm long, white at first, becoming reddish-brown."

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf 16].[Cited 2009 October

5.01

(1) Mikania micrantha " is a perennial twining herb with 5-ribbed branches, pubescent or glabrous; internodes are 7.5 - 21.5 cm long. Leaves are opposite, ovate-deltoid, 6 - 15 x 3 - 9 cm, base cordate, apex acuminate, margins are coarsely dentate, crenate or sub-entire, glabrous on both sides, minutely glandular beneath and 3 - 5 nerved from the base; the petiole is 3 - 7 cm long. The inflorescence is axillary panicled corymb; capitula is cylindrical, 1.5 mm across; axillary panicled corymb; capitula is cylindrical, 1.5 mm across; there are 4 flowers per capitula; 4 involucral bracts, oblong to obovate, acute, green in colour, 1 - 3 mm long with a fifth smaller one that is 1 - 2 mm long; the corolla is 5 -lobed, white, often with a purple tinge, 4 - 5 mm long; achenes 2 - 3 mm long, narrowly oblong, 4 -angled, black, glabrous; pappus capillary, uniseriate, connate at base, 3 mm long, white at first, becoming reddish-brown."

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf 16].[Cited 2009 October

5.02

(1) Mikania micrantha " is a perennial twining herb with 5-ribbed branches, pubescent or glabrous; internodes are 7.5 - 21.5 cm long. Leaves are opposite, ovate-deltoid, 6 - 15 x 3 - 9 cm, base cordate, apex acuminate, margins are coarsely dentate, crenate or sub-entire, glabrous on both sides, minutely glandular beneath and 3 - 5 nerved from the base; the petiole is 3 - 7 cm long. The inflorescence is axillary panicled corymb; capitula is cylindrical, 1.5 mm across; axillary panicled corymb; capitula is cylindrical, 1.5 mm across; there are 4 flowers per capitula; 4 involucral bracts, oblong to obovate, acute, green in colour, 1 - 3 mm long with a fifth smaller one that is 1 - 2 mm long; the corolla is 5 -lobed, white, often with a purple tinge, 4 - 5 mm long; achenes 2 - 3 mm long, narrowly oblong, 4 -angled, black, glabrous; pappus capillary, uniseriate, connate at base, 3 mm long, white at first, becoming reddish-brown."

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf 16].[Cited 2009 October

5.03

(1) Mikania micrantha " is a perennial twining herb with 5-ribbed branches, pubescent or glabrous; internodes are 7.5 - 21.5 cm long. Leaves are opposite, ovate-deltoid, 6 - 15 x 3 - 9 cm, base cordate, apex acuminate, margins are coarsely dentate, crenate or sub-entire, glabrous on both sides, minutely glandular beneath and 3 - 5 nerved from the base; the petiole is 3 - 7 cm long. The inflorescence is axillary panicled corymb; capitula is cylindrical, 1.5 mm across; axillary panicled corymb; capitula is cylindrical, 1.5 mm across; there are 4 flowers per capitula; 4 involucral bracts, oblong to obovate, acute, green in colour, 1 - 3 mm long with a fifth smaller one that is 1 - 2 mm long; the corolla is 5 -lobed, white, often with a purple tinge, 4 - 5 mm long; achenes 2 - 3 mm long, narrowly oblong, 4 -angled, black, glabrous; pappus capillary, uniseriate, connate at base, 3 mm long, white at first, becoming reddish-brown."

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf 16].[Cited 2009 October

5.04

(1) Mikania micrantha " is a perennial twining herb with 5-ribbed branches, pubescent or glabrous; internodes are 7.5 - 21.5 cm long. Leaves are opposite, ovate-deltoid, 6 - 15 x 3 - 9 cm, base cordate, apex acuminate, margins are coarsely dentate, crenate or sub-entire, glabrous on both sides, minutely glandular beneath and 3 - 5 nerved from the base; the petiole is 3 - 7 cm long. The inflorescence is axillary panicled corymb; capitula is cylindrical, 1.5 mm across; axillary panicled corymb; capitula is cylindrical, 1.5 mm across; there are 4 flowers per capitula; 4 involucral bracts, oblong to obovate, acute, green in colour, 1 - 3 mm long with a fifth smaller one that is 1 - 2 mm long; the corolla is 5 -lobed, white, often with a purple tinge, 4 - 5 mm long; achenes 2 - 3 mm long, narrowly oblong, 4 -angled, black, glabrous; pappus capillary, uniseriate, connate at base, 3 mm long, white at first, becoming reddish-brown."

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf 16].[Cited 2009 October

6.01

(1) In southwest India flowering starts in August and continues up to January. Fruit set occurs between September and February, starting 17-21 days after flowering.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf 16].[Cited 2009 October

6.02

(1) Each stalk of Mikania can produce 20,000-40,000 seeds. Germination rate of seeds is 8-12%. (2) The vine can reproduce from seeds and vegetatively

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf. [Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Mikania-Vine-PP143.pdf [Cited 2009 October 16].

6.03

Unknown

6.04

(1) Study indicates that Mikania micrantha is self-incompatible.

(1) Hong, L., Shen, H. Ye, W.H., Cao, H.L., Wang, Z.M. 2007. Self-incompatibility in Mikania micrantha in South China. Weed Research. 47:280-283

6.05

(1) Pollination study suggests that Mikania is pollinated by insects. (2) Matzenbacher, N. I. (1985) verified that Mikania micrantha is visited by honeybees.

(1) Hong, L., Shen, H. Ye, W.H., Cao, H.L., Wang, Z.M. 2007. Self-incompatibility in Mikania micrantha in South China. Weed Research. 47:280-283 (2) Matzenbacher, N. I. (1985) : Levantamento florístico preliminar das Compostas da fazenda São Maximiano, Guaíba, RS, Brasil.– Comunicações do Museu de Ciências da PUCRS, Bot., Porto Alegre, 37: 115–127.

6.06

(1) Mikania micrantha can grow vegetatively from nodes and very small stem segments. The main mode of reproduction is vegetative. (2) Mikania reproduces by seed and vegetatively. Small plant fragments containing a node readily produce roots when in contact with moist soil.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf. [Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Mikania-Vine-PP143.pdf [Cited 2009 October 16].

6.07

(1) Fast grower, fruit set is initiated 17-21 days after flowering. Young plants can grow 8-9 cm in 24 hours. (2) Mikania has a rapid growth rate, and a single plant can smother an area of 25 square meters in just months.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf. [Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Mikania-Vine-PP143.pdf [Cited 2009 October 16].

7.01

(1) Seeds are dispersed by wind, water, machinery or animals. Mikania is highly successful at vegetative reproduction and young shoots can be transported by machinery.

(1) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Mikania-Vine-PP143.pdf [Cited 2009 October 16].

7.02

(1) "Mikania micrantha is used as a fodder in many countries. Sheep preferentially grazed Mikania in Malaysia and other cattle also relish it. In Kerala, India, the weed is utilized as a fodder in some parts of the state, especially during summer when availability of grass is scarce. However, Mikania is known to cause hepatotoxicity and liver damage in dairy cattle. The antibacterial effect of Mikania and its efficacy in wound healing has been reported. In Assam (NE India), Kabi tribes use the leaf juice of Mikania as an antidote for insect bite and scorpion sting. The leaves are also used for treating stomachache. Use of juice of Mikania as a curative agent for itches is reported from Malaysia. However, in all such cases therapeutic evidences are scarce or lacking. In Africa, Mikania leaves are used as a vegetable for making soups. The weed is used as a cover crop in rubber plantations in Malaysia. It is also planted on slopes to prevent soil erosion. Mikania green manure has been reported to increase the yield of rice in Mizoram, India."

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf.[Cited 2009 October 16].

7.03

(1) Mikania can smother and penetrate tree crowns and choke and topple plants. It reduces the growth and productivity of oil palm, rubber, citrus, cassava, teak, eucalyptus, acacia, albizia, pineapple, coconut and plantain in its introduced regions. The annual cost of controlling Mikania in Malaysia is estimated to be around 8 - 10 million dollars.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf.[Cited 2009 October 16].

7.04

(1) Seeds are dispersed over long distances by wind, animals and water currents. Germination of seeds is low (8-12%). Main mode of propagation is vegetative. (2) Seeds are dispersed by wind, water, machinery or animals. Mikania is highly successful at vegetative reproduction and young shoots can be transported by machinery.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf. [Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Mikania-Vine-PP143.pdf [Cited 2009 October 16].

7.05

(1) Seeds are dispersed over long distances by wind, animals and water currents. Germination of seeds is low (8-12%). Main mode of propagation is vegetative. (2) Seeds are dispersed by wind, water, machinery or animals. Mikania is highly successful at vegetative reproduction and young shoots can be transported by machinery.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf. [Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Mikania-Vine-PP143.pdf [Cited 2009 October 16].

7.06

(1) Seeds are dispersed over long distances by wind, animals and water currents. Germination of seeds is low (8-12%). Main mode of propagation is vegetative. (2) Seeds are dispersed by wind, water, machinery or animals. Mikania is highly successful at vegetative reproduction and young shoots can be transported by machinery.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf. [Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Mikania-Vine-PP143.pdf [Cited 2009 October 16].

7.07

(1) Seeds are dispersed over long distances by wind, animals and water currents. Germination of seeds is low (8-12%). Main mode of propagation is vegetative. (2) Seeds are dispersed by wind, water, machinery or animals. Mikania is highly successful at vegetative reproduction and young shoots can be transported by machinery.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf. [Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Mikania-Vine-PP143.pdf [Cited 2009 October 16].

7.08

(1) "achenes 2 - 3 mm long, narrowly oblong, 4 -angled, black, glabrous; pappus capillary, uniseriate, connate at base, 3 mm long" (2) The seeds are 1.5-2 mm long. The pappus consists of 30 fine white hairs and is longer than the seed.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf. [Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Mikania-Vine-PP143.pdf [Cited 2009 October 16].

8.01

(1) A single stalk of Mikania can produce 20,000-40,000 mature seeds in one season. (2) Mikania produces 40,000 seeds per plant each year. (3) In this study in Hong Kong, between 34,137 and 50, 297 flower heads with a total of 136,548 - 201,188 florets were counted in 0.25 m2.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf. [Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Mikania-Vine-PP143.pdf [Cited 2009 October 16]. (3) Zhang, L.Y., Ye, W.H., Cao, H.L., Feng, H.L. 2003. Mikania micrantha H. B. K. in China - an overview. Weed Research. 44:42-49.

8.02

Unknown (1) Seeds required cold stratification to germinate.

(1) Baskin, C.C., Baskin, J.M. 2001. Seeds Ecology, Biogeography, and Evolution of Dormancy and Germination. San Diego, California. Academic Press. 666 p.

8.03

(1) "Both pre-emergent and post-emergent herbicides are generally used for Mikania control. Pre-emergence application of Oxyflourfen (0.06 kg ha-1) + Paraquat(0.24 kg ha1) is reported to be effective if applied before flowering or seed setting.Glyphosate is widely used in many countries against mikania, especially in forestplantations. The dosage used varies widely (0.5 to 4.5 kg ha1 or 0.75 to 8 l ha-1) dependingon the intensity of infestation and number of applications required for effective control.In general, the application of Glyphosate @ 2.5 - 5 l ha-1 may take care of even heavyinfestations. This herbicide can also inhibit germination of seeds of the weed. Application of Diuron at the rate of 1-2 kg ha1 is also reported to be equally effective as Glyphosate. Herbicides Triclopyr +Picloram (commercial name Grazon DS) @ 1.75 l ha-1 and Triclopyr (commercial name Garlon 600) @ 500 ml ha-1 also gives excellent control of Mikania." Treatments may need to be repeated for several years to eliminate newly germinated seedlings.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf 16].[Cited 2009 October

8.04

(1) Mikania can grow back from a cut stump and can survive fire and produce shoots in a few months. (2) The population size of Mikania micrantha was considerably enhanced by fire in 2, 4, and 8 year old fallows developing after slash and burn agriculture.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf 16].[Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) http://www3.interscience.wiley.com.eres.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/journal/119472681/abstract [Cited 2009 October 16].

8.05

Unknown (1) Puccinia spegazzinii, a microsyclic rust has been released in tea plantations in India. Preliminary results on the spread of the pathogen are encouraging. The rust has proven to be highly specific to Mikania. (2) The obligate, parasite, Cuscuta campestris has been studied as a potential biocontrol agent for Mikania micrantha. Once an association has been established between Mikania and Cuscuta, the parasite is able to severely restrain the growth of Mikania, inhibit its flowering, and result in almost complete death of its aerial parts during a growing season. Field studies are needed to understand application methods, effectiveness and its effects on the Mikania community structure and function.

(1) http://apfisn.net/fact_sheet/mikania.pdf. [Cited 2009 October 16]. (2) Shen, H. Ye, W., Hong, L., Cao, H., Wang, Z. 2005. Influence of the obligate parasite Cuscuta campestris on growth and biomass allocation of its host Mikania micrantha. Journal of Experimental Botany. 56 (415): 1277-1284.