Linum usitatissimum L. Family - Linaceae. Common Names(s) - flax. Synonym(s) - Linum humile P. Mill..

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

1

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

1

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

1.5

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2.5

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

1.5

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

9.5

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)Reported from the Central Asian, Near Eastern and Mediterranean Centers of Diversity, flax or cvs thereof is reported to tolerate disease, drought, fungi, grazing, herbicides, hydrogen fluoride, high pH, pesticides, rust, virus, and weeds (Duke, 1978). Over 300 flax cultivars are known in the world...Native to Central Asia and Mediterranean Region. Remains of flax plants have been found in refuse of stone age dwellings in that region. Cultivated in Mesopotamia, Assyria and Egypt for over 5,000 years; now cultivated in many countries around the world [No evidence of selection for less weedy traits]

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Linum_usitatissimum.html [Accessed 16 july 2008]

1.02

1.03

2.01

Capable of being grown in subtropical regions (1)Native to Central Asia and Mediterranean Region. Remains of flax plants have been found in refuse of stone age dwellings in that region. Cultivated in Mesopotamia, Assyria and Egypt for over 5,000 years; now cultivated in many countries around the world...Flax is reportedly grown in Boreal Moist to Wet through Tropical Very Dry Forest life zones, where pH ranges from 4.8–8.2 (mean of 66 cases = 6.6), annual precipitation from 3–13 dm (mean of 76 cases = 7.1), and annual mean temperature from 6 to 27°C (mean of 76 cases = 12.0).

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Linum_usitatissimum.html [Accessed 16 july 2008]

2.02

[Native range marginally subtropical, and often grown in subtropical areas]

2.03

(1)Requires a cool temperate or subtropical region where the temperature is favorable for production of spring-sown small grains. Seed flax is raised under a fairly wide range of conditions, but fiber flax requires abundant moisture and cool weather during the growing season, and warm dry weather during harvesting of seed and fiber, especially where water-retting is practiced...Flax is reportedly grown in Boreal Moist to Wet through Tropical Very Dry Forest life zones, where pH ranges from 4.8–8.2 (mean of 66 cases = 6.6), annual precipitation from 3–13 dm (mean of 76 cases = 7.1), and annual mean temperature from 6 to 27°C (mean of 76 cases = 12.0).

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Linum_usitatissimum.html [Accessed 16 july 2008]

2.04

(1)Linum usitatissimum L. WA (naturalised), Qld (naturalised), SA (naturalised), NSW (naturalised), Vic (naturalised), Tas (naturalised)

(1)http://www.chah.gov.au/chah/apc/interim/Linaceae.pdf [Accessed 17 July 2008]

2.05

(1)now cultivated in many countries around the world

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Linum_usitatissimum.html [Accessed 16 july 2008]

3.01

(1)A casual of waste places and stony ground. (2)Linum usitatissimum L. WA (naturalised), Qld (naturalised), SA (naturalised), NSW (naturalised), Vic (naturalised), Tas (naturalised) (3)Cultivated throughout China except Hainan and Taiwan, sometimes naturalized [origin uncertain but possibly the Mediterranean region and/or parts of W Asia and W Europe, widely cultivated]

(1)Webb, C.J.; Sykes, W.R.; Garnock-Jones, P.J. 1988. Flora of New Zealand. Volume IV: Naturalised Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Dicotyledons. First electronic edition, Landcare Research, June 2004. Transcr. A.D. Wilton and I.M.L. Andres. http://FloraSeries.LandcareResearch.co.nz. [Accessed 17 July 2008] (2)http://www.chah.gov.au/chah/apc/interim/Linaceae.pdf [Accessed 17 July 2008] (3)http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200012411 [Accessed 17 July 2008]

3.02

(1)Weedy in disturbed areas, along roadsides and railroad tracks, naturalized [no evidence of significant impacts]

(1)http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/consumer/poison/Linumus.htm [Accessed 17 July 2008]

3.03

(1)As with all crops cultivated and harvested at the field scale, some seed may escape harvest and remain in the soil until the following season when it germinates either before or following the seeding of the succeeding crop. In some instances, the volunteers may give considerable competition to the seeded crop and warrant chemical and/or mechanical control. The problem of volunteer plants in succeeding crops is common to most field crop species. Much depends on the management practices used in the production of the crop, e.g., whether the plants have disbursed seed at the time of harvest, the setting of the harvesting equipment, and speed of the harvesting operation which will determine whether more or less seed is lost by the harvester...In crop production systems, poor management practices or other circumstances may result in large numbers of seed of L. usitatissimum not being harvested and thus finding their way back to the soil. These seed may cause volunteer "weed" problems in succeeding crops, especially if they occur at high density. [can be a weed with poor management practices, but otherwise apparently a weed of minor significance]

(1)Anonymous. 1994. The Biology of Linum usitatissimum L. (Flax). Biology Document BIO1994-10. Plant Biosafety Office. Ottawa, Canada. Available from http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/plaveg/bio/dir/dir9410e.pdf [Accessed 17 July 2008]

3.04

(1)No evidence of serious environmental impacts

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/linum_usitatissimum/ [Accessed 17 July 2008]

3.05

(1)Linum trigynum…S Serious threat to one or more vegetation formations;

(1)http://www.knox.vic.gov.au/Files/WeedPlantsinKnoxApril04.pdf [Accessed 17 July 2008]

4.01

(1)Erect glabrous annual herb; stems 7.5–12 dm tall,

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Linum_usitatissimum.html [Accessed 16 july 2008]

4.02

(1)Lolium and Phleum have allelopathic effects on Linum, reducing its carbohydrate synthesis (Fabian et al., 1976). [most references mention allelopathic effects on Linum]

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Linum_usitatissimum.html [Accessed 16 july 2008]

4.03

No evidence

4.04

(1)Animal food: fodder

(1)http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?22361 [Accessed 17 July 2008]

4.05

(1)LIVESTOCK COMMENTS: Linseed cake is used in stock feeds; some cases of cattle and pig poisoning have occurred from feed with flax screenings. (2)The seed of some strains contain cyanogenic glycosides in the seed though the toxicity is low, especially if the seed is eaten slowly. It becomes more toxic if water is drunk at the same time[76, 222]. The cyanogenic glycosides are also present in other parts of the plant and have caused poisoning to livestock[240].

(1)http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/delaware/ilpin/1748.co [Accessed 17 July 2008] (2)http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Linum+usitatissimum [Accessed 17 July 2008]

4.06

(1)Many fungi have been found on flax, but the most serious diseases are flax wilt, several rusts, seedling blights, and Pasmo. Causative agents are: Alternaria brassiceae, A. lini, A. linicola, A. solani, A. tenuis; Ascochyta linicola, Botrytis cinerea, Col letotrichum lini, C. linicola, Corticium solani, Diplodia lini, Erysiphe cichoracearum, E. polygoni, E. polyphaga, Fusarium acuminatum, F. avenaceum, F. lini, Kabatiella lini, Leveillula linacearum, Melampsora lini, Mycosphaerella linorum, M. tulasnei, Oidiopsis lini, Oidium lini, Phoma lini, P. linicola, Polyspora lini, Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotinia fuckeliana, S. libertiana, S. minor, S. sclerotiorum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Septoria linicola, Sphaerella linorum, Thielaviopsis basicola and Trichothecium roseum. Important viruses causing disease in flax are: Aster yellows (Chlorogenus callistephi), Beet curly top and Yellows. Flax may be parasitized by Cuscuta epilinum, C. epithymum, C. indecora, C. pentagona and Striga lutea. The bacteria Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Pseudomonas atrofaciens also cause diseases. Insects are not a serious problem in flax production. Nematodes isolated from flax include the following species: Ditylenchus dipsaci, Helicotylenchus erythrinae, H. spp., Heterodera schachtii, Meloidogyne arenaria, M. hapla, M. incognita., M. incognita acrita, M. thamesi, M. javanica, Paratylenchus sp., Pratylenchus coffeae, P. penetrans, Tylenochorhynchus spp., and Xiphinema spp.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Linum_usitatissimum.html [Accessed 16 july 2008]

4.07

(1)Linseed oil may cause skin irritation upon contact. Ingestion causes difficulty of breathing, paralysis, and convulsions...TOXIC ONLY IF LARGE QUANTITIES EATEN. SKIN IRRITATION MINOR, OR LASTING ONLY FOR A FEW MINUTES. [Normal contact apparently would not result in serious poisoning or allergice reactions]

(1)http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/consumer/poison/Linumus.htm [Accessed 17 July 2008]

4.08

No evidence

4.09

(1)It cannot grow in the shade.

(1)http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Linum+usitatissimum [Accessed 17 July 2008]

4.10

(1)Well-drained, loamy soils overlying a clay subsoil are best, with pH 5–7. Very light highly fertile soils not desirable as they produce tall rank growth tending to lodge.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Linum_usitatissimum.html [Accessed 16 july 2008]

4.11

(1)Erect glabrous annual herb; stems 7.5–12 dm tall,

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Linum_usitatissimum.html [Accessed 16 july 2008]

4.12

No evidence outside cultivation

5.01

Terrestrial

5.02

Linaceae

5.03

Linaceae

5.04

No evidence

6.01

No evidence

6.02

(1)Propagation is usually by seed.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Linum_usitatissimum.html [Accessed 16 july 2008]

6.03

(1)Among nine Linum species with chromosome 2n = 30, Gill and Yermanos (1967a) reported the following successful hybridization events with L. usitatissimum as one of the parents:
L. usitatissimum x L. angustifolium
L. usitatissimum x L. africanum
L. corymbiferum x L. usitatissimum
L. usitatissimum x L. decumbens
L. nervosum x L. usitatissimum
L. pallescens x L. usitatissimum (2)Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is being evaluated as a crop platform for the production of bio-industrial and nutraceutical products. An important consideration for the release of any novel trait is the potential for gene flow to wild or weedy relatives and the impact it may have on their populations. The potential for gene introgression from transgenic flax to wild relatives, the occurrence, the phylogeny of flax wild relatives and reported interspecific hybridization was reviewed to initiate the evaluation of environmental risk of novel flax in Canada. The genus Linum contains approximately 230 species which are distributed in many parts of the world and may grow in sympatry with cultivated flax. Interspecific hybridization and cytogenetic studies between flax and congeneric species demonstrated that cultivated flax has the ability to hybridize and form viable F1 plants with at least nine species of Linum (L. africanum, L. angustifolium, L. corymbiferum, L. decumbens, L. floccosum, L. hirsutum, L nervosum, L. pallescens, and L. tenue). Hybridization of flax with many other wild relatives has either not been studied or reported. However, based on the evidence of reported hybridization with wild or weedy relatives, gene flow from flax to wild or weedy relatives is possible in several species native to North America, depending on species distribution, sympatry, concurrent flowering, ploidy level, and sexual compatibility.

(1)Anonymous. 1994. The Biology of Linum usitatissimum L. (Flax). Biology Document BIO1994-10. Plant Biosafety Office. Ottawa, Canada. Available from http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/plaveg/bio/dir/dir9410e.pdf [Accessed 17 July 2008] (2)Jhalaa, A.J., L. M. Hall, and J. C. Hall. 2008. Potential Hybridization of Flax with Weedy and Wild Relatives: An Avenue for Movement of Engineered Genes? Crop Sci 48:825-840.

6.04

(1)When grown for seed, flax is self-pollinating.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Linum_usitatissimum.html [Accessed 16 july 2008]

6.05

(1)Because of its flower structure and because its "sticky pollen" is rarely transferred by insects (Beard and Comstock, 1980), flax is a highly self-pollinated species. [No need for specialist pollinators]

(1)Anonymous. 1994. The Biology of Linum usitatissimum L. (Flax). Biology Document BIO1994-10. Plant Biosafety Office. Ottawa, Canada. Available from http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/plaveg/bio/dir/dir9410e.pdf [Accessed 17 July 2008]

6.06

(1)Propagation is usually by seed.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Linum_usitatissimum.html [Accessed 16 july 2008]

6.07

(1)This is an annual plant that grows to about three feet high.

(1)Sayre, J. K. 2001. Ancient Herbs and Modern Herbs. Bottlebrush Press. Available from http://www.bottlebrushpress.com/flax.html [Accessed 17 July 2008]

7.01

No evidence

7.02

(1)Canada is a major producing country along with Argentina, India, the USA and Russia; most Canadian flaxseed is exported as linseed. Traditionally, the oil pressed from the seed (linseed oil)has been used for a variety of industrial purposes and the oil-free meal could be fed to livestock

(1)Anonymous. 1994. The Biology of Linum usitatissimum L. (Flax). Biology Document BIO1994-10. Plant Biosafety Office. Ottawa, Canada. Available from http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/plaveg/bio/dir/dir9410e.pdf [Accessed 17 July 2008]

7.03

(1)Vector accidental introduction: birdseed

(1)http://www.biochange.ie/alienplants/result_options.php?species=538&families=Linaceae&p=i&blz=1 [Accessed 17 July 2008]

7.04

(1)fruit a 5-celled capsule, on long erect pedicels, globose-ovoid, 7–10 mm high, about 7 mm across, surrounded by the persistent calyx, indehiscent; seeds up to 10 per capsule, yellow or light brown to dark brown, shining, varying in size, weighing from 3–12 gm per 1,000 seeds, flat, oval, one end rounded, the other pointed. [no mechanism for dispersal]

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Linum_usitatissimum.html [Accessed 16 july 2008]

7.05

Unknown

7.06

No adaptations for bird dispersal

7.07

No mechanism for external attachment

7.08

Unknown for other animals (1)In summary, of 40,025 experimental seeds eaten by the linnets, only 7 germinated. [Linnets destroyed Linum seeds]

(1)Roessler, E. S. 1936. Viability of Weed Seeds after Ingestion by California Linnets. The Condor 38(2): 62-65.

8.01

(1)seeds up to 10 per capsule, yellow or light brown to dark brown, shining, varying in size, weighing from 3–12 gm per 1,000 seeds,...Seed production figures underate seed yields of 220 to 2820 kg/ha, but locally yields can be much higher. [Using low estimates, crops can produce >1800 seeds/sq. meter]

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Linum_usitatissimum.html [Accessed 16 july 2008]

8.02

(1)I:transient seed bank with seeds that persist in the soil for less than one year

(1)http://www.biochange.ie/alienplants/result_options.php?species=538&families=Linaceae&p=r&blz=1 [Accessed 17 July 2008]

8.03

(1)Summary Two linseed flax (Linum usitatissimum) lines transformed with a mutant Arabidopsis ALS gene conferring resistance to sulfonylurea herbicides were tested in a replicated, randomized field test against its nontransformed commercial cultivar parent (cv. NorLin) in normal soil and in soil containing the commonly used sulfonylurea herbicides chlorsulfuron (Glean®) or metsulfuron methyl (Ally®). There were no significant differences between the transgenic lines and the parent for any agronomic trait measured in untreated soil, indicating that there is no detrimental effect of T-DNA or foreign gene expression. Similarly, there were no significant differences for performance of the transgenic lines between the untreated and the herbicide treated soils, indicating that the transferred gene does confer a field level of tolerance to the flax. The control NorLin was devastated by the presence of the herbicides in the soil. [possibility that certain types may be herbicide resistant]

(1)McHughen, A. and F. Holm. 1991. Herbicide resistant transgenic flax field test: Agronomic performance in normal and sulfonylurea-containing soils. Euphytica 55(1): 49-56.

8.04

(1)Reported from the Central Asian, Near Eastern and Mediterranean Centers of Diversity, flax or cvs thereof is reported to tolerate disease, drought, fungi, grazing, herbicides, hydrogen fluoride, high pH, pesticides, rust, virus, and weeds

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Linum_usitatissimum.html [Accessed 16 july 2008]

8.05

Unknown