Ilex paraguariensis A. St. Hil. Family - Aquifoliaceae. Common Name(s) - yerba mate, Paraguay tea Synonym(s) - NA.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated? (If answer is 'no' then go to question 2.01)

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y= 1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

n

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

>1

0

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

8

Notes

Reference

1.01

Cultivation may result in loss of genetic variability in wild populations, but there is no evidence that selection has resulted in non-weedy traits. (1)The infraspecific classification of I. paraguariensis is still under study. Consequently, the correspondence between the biological varieties and the horticultural varieties of genuine maté is not clear. Following is a list of some of the varieties recognized as such by growers in the three countries: Erva de talo roxo, Erva de talo branco, Erva piriquita (Brazil); Caá verá, Caá manduví, Caá panambi, Caá cuatí, Caá ñu, Caá eté, Caá mi, Caá chacra, Caá-je-he-ni (Paraguay); Yerba colorada, Yerba señorita, Caá mini (Argentina)...In wild South American Ilex species and in the maté-growing region, the risks of genetic erosion are high because the natural forest is gradually giving way to agroforestry and livestock production, a process accentuated by the relatively low germinating capacity of many species (especially that of maté). As no suitable method has yet been discovered for maintaining the germinating capacity of I. paraguariensis for prolonged periods, there are no seed banks of the species. Nevertheless, at the Cerro Azul de Misiones experimental agricultural station in Argentina, a maté clonal garden began to be developed in 1976, complemented by the nursery started in 1986 with I. paraguariensis of various origins and with other species of Ilex.

(1)http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0646e/T0646E0n.htm [Accessed 12 Feb 2008]

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)Native to Paraguay and adjacent Argentina and Brazil.

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

2.02

2.03

Yes due to broad altitude range (1)In both sites the climate is classified as Cfa in the Köppen system, which corresponds to a subtropical humid climate, with a mean annual precipitation of 1700 mm, evenly distributed along the year, and an average annual temperature of 21 °C, with a maximum of 39 °C (January) and a minimum of –6 °C (July) (Eibl et al., 1995). Altitude was 180 m above sea level. (2)Mate thrives in a climate that is hot and very wet in summer (>1000 mm precipitation), but dry and cool in winter. Despite its tropical origins, mate has adapted to southern New Zealand. This is because in its native South America mate climbs into montane areas with mean annual temperatures of 17°C or less and where frosts are not uncommon in winter. (3)Prominent among the ecological requirements of this subtropical species are climatic conditions, especially mean annual precipitation and an even distribution of rainfall throughout the year. This must not be less than 1 200 mm annually and, during the driest quarter- which in the region is winter - the minimum must be 250 mm. I. paraguariensis wild distribution area is always unaffected by water shortages. The mean annual temperature of the area is approximately 21 to 22°C. The absolute minimum temperature that this species is able to tolerate is -6°C, even though winter snows are frequent on the plateaus and mountain regions to the south of Brazil and east of Misiones...Potential areas for the introduction of this crop are subtropical regions with acid soils and a water supply similar to those of the species' natural area of dispersal. (4)Hardiness: USDA Zone 9a: to -6.6 °C (20 °F) USDA Zone 9b: to -3.8 °C (25 °F) USDA Zone 10a: to -1.1 °C (30 °F) USDA Zone 10b: to 1.7 °C (35 °F) USDA Zone 11: above 4.5 °C (40 °F) (5)Climatic amplitude (estimates) - Altitude range: 25 - 1800 m - Mean annual rainfall: 1100 - 2300 mm - Rainfall regime: uniform - Mean annual temperature: 12 - 24ºC - Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 18 - 26ºC - Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 8 - 19ºC - Absolute minimum temperature: > -8ºC

(1)Eibl B., Fernandez R.A., Kozarik J.C., Lupi A., Montagnini F. and Nozzi D. 2000. Agroforestry systems with Ilex paraguariensis (American holly or yerba mate) and native timber trees on small farms in Misiones, Argentina. Agroforest. Syst. 48: 1–8. (2)http://www.crop.cri.nz/home/products-services/publications/broadsheets/135matetea.pdf [Accessed 12 Feb 2008] (3)http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0646e/T0646E0n.htm [Accessed 12 Feb 2008] (4)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/56956/ [Accessed 14 Feb 2008] (5)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.04

(1)Native to Paraguay and adjacent Argentina and Brazil; in Hawaii cultivated and sparingly naturalized in mesic valleys at least in Manoa and Waiahole valleys, Oahu. First collected on Oahu in 1934. (2)Maté is a large, white-flowered, evergreen shrub that grows wild near streams in moist, well-drained soil in sun or shade and requires at least a forty-five-degree Fahrenheit temperature to succeed. It is native to subtropical South America and has been cultivated as a very valuable commercial crop in northern Argentina (Corrientes and Misiones), southern Brazil, eastern Paraguay and western Uruguay (and it has also been naturalized in Texas).

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes). (2)http://www.herbalextractsplus.com/mate.cfm [Accessed 12 Feb 2008]

2.05

(1)Maté, with a very restricted distribution outside America, is a tree that produces a raw material for industrialization and consumption as a stimulating infusion. So far, this has been the main use of this somewhat overlooked crop.

(1)http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0646e/T0646E0n.htm [Accessed 12 Feb 2008]

3.01

(1)in Hawaii cultivated and sparingly naturalized in mesic valleys at least in Manoa and Waiahole valleys, Oahu. First collected on Oahu in 1934. (2)Maté is a large, white-flowered, evergreen shrub that grows wild near streams in moist, well-drained soil in sun or shade and requires at least a forty-five-degree Fahrenheit temperature to succeed. It is native to subtropical South America and has been cultivated as a very valuable commercial crop in northern Argentina (Corrientes and Misiones), southern Brazil, eastern Paraguay and western Uruguay (and it has also been naturalized in Texas).

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes). (2)http://www.herbalextractsplus.com/mate.cfm [Accessed 12 Feb 2008]

3.02

No evidence of negative impacts. (1)in Hawaii cultivated and sparingly naturalized in mesic valleys at least in Manoa and Waiahole valleys, Oahu. First collected on Oahu in 1934. (2)Maté is a large, white-flowered, evergreen shrub that grows wild near streams in moist, well-drained soil in sun or shade and requires at least a forty-five-degree Fahrenheit temperature to succeed. It is native to subtropical South America and has been cultivated as a very valuable commercial crop in northern Argentina (Corrientes and Misiones), southern Brazil, eastern Paraguay and western Uruguay (and it has also been naturalized in Texas).

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes). (2)http://www.herbalextractsplus.com/mate.cfm [Accessed 12 Feb 2008]

3.03

No evidence of negative impacts. (1)in Hawaii cultivated and sparingly naturalized in mesic valleys at least in Manoa and Waiahole valleys, Oahu. First collected on Oahu in 1934. (2)Maté is a large, white-flowered, evergreen shrub that grows wild near streams in moist, well-drained soil in sun or shade and requires at least a forty-five-degree Fahrenheit temperature to succeed. It is native to subtropical South America and has been cultivated as a very valuable commercial crop in northern Argentina (Corrientes and Misiones), southern Brazil, eastern Paraguay and western Uruguay (and it has also been naturalized in Texas).

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes). (2)http://www.herbalextractsplus.com/mate.cfm [Accessed 12 Feb 2008]

3.04

No evidence of negative impacts. (1)in Hawaii cultivated and sparingly naturalized in mesic valleys at least in Manoa and Waiahole valleys, Oahu. First collected on Oahu in 1934. (2)Maté is a large, white-flowered, evergreen shrub that grows wild near streams in moist, well-drained soil in sun or shade and requires at least a forty-five-degree Fahrenheit temperature to succeed. It is native to subtropical South America and has been cultivated as a very valuable commercial crop in northern Argentina (Corrientes and Misiones), southern Brazil, eastern Paraguay and western Uruguay (and it has also been naturalized in Texas).

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes). (2)http://www.herbalextractsplus.com/mate.cfm [Accessed 12 Feb 2008]

3.05

(1)I. aquifolium has been used as an ornamental tree, and its cuttings used in Christmas decorations. However, now it can now be found in deciduous, mixed and coniferous forests as well as on forest edges and hedgerows. It can dominate the tall shrub layer, creating a deep shade difficult for some native species to grow in. Various sources on invasive species indicate that I. aquifolium competes with native plants for light, nutrients and water. I. aquifoliumi has been identified as particularly a problem in the forests of North Vancouver and on portions of Vancouver Island such as natural areas around Saanich. (2)The berries are eaten by birds which disperse the seeds into bushland. Damage to roots may stimulate suckering and lower branches may root where they touch the ground, forming dense clumps. Holly is naturalised in NSW, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, usually in wet forest where it is a serious threat to native species. It is still sold from many nurseries.

(1)http://www.evergreen.ca/en/cg/pdf/invasive/holly_factSheet.pdf [Accessed 12 Feb 2008] (2)http://www.weeds.org.au/cgi-bin/weedident.cgi?tpl=plant.tpl&ibra=all&card=E24 [Accessed 12 Feb 2008]

4.01

(1)The maté is a dioecious evergreen tree which grows up to 18 m in height. The leaves are alternate, coriaceous and obovate with a serrate margin and obtuse apex.

(1)http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0646e/T0646E0n.htm [Accessed 12 Feb 2008]

4.02

(1)Abstract: This study aimed at evaluating the allelopathic activity of Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil (erva-mate) to advise the potential of co-cultivation of this species with other crops. Bioassays were carried out with lettuce as the test species. Aqueous extracts were prepared from various parts of the plant: young and mature leaves (the latter taken from different positions in the tree), branches, and fruits in three stages of ripening. All parts were processed right after harvest or after being dried in an oven at 68degreeC. The extracts were prepared with hot distilled water and were used immediately or after a 50 days storage period at 5degreeC. Extracts were analyzed for pH, osmotic potential and yield. Results showed differences in yield of the various extracts and that pH and osmotic potential did not affect the responses of lettuce to the extracts. Mature leaves and ripe fruit extracts were effective in germination inhibition. All extracts reduced growth and caused abnormalities in seedlings. Extracts prepared with dried parts were less inhibitory to germination and growth. The evaluation of stored extract showed that allelopathic activity remained for up to 50 days. As the inhibition of growth and change in the morphology of the plantlets (without participation of pH and osmotical potential) are considered "bona fide" indicators of allelopathic activity, the results strongly suggest that I. paraguariensis is an allelopathic species. (2)ABSTRACT - This work was carried out to study the allelopathic effect of ripe fruits of mate (Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil.) on the germination and growth of hybrid corn SAVE 484 (Zea mays L.) and, in addition, to determine if the time of permanence of the fruits on the soil affected the allelopathic effect on corn. Ripe fruits of Ilex paraguariensis ("mate") were added to plastic vases with soil adjusted to corn cultivation. Seeds of maize were sowed right away to the incorporation of the fruits either 30 or 60 days after. Experiments were also performed in laboratory with extracts of "mate" fruits and PEG 6000, osmotic substances in concentration similar to those from the extracts, in order to distinguish the osmotic from allelopathic effect. In soil, as well as in laboratory using paper as substrate, the germination and the emergence of the corn were not affected, but the growth and the development were. Plant height, length of the first node, length of the leaves, dry matter of shoot and root, number of adventitious roots, length of the tap root were affected either by the presence of fruits or by their extracts showing an inhibition of development, possibly caused by the allelochemicals present. The number of root hairs in corn seedlings showed to be a very sensible measurement to allelopathic substances, which rested in soil for 60 days, at least, after the addition of the fruits of "mate".

(1)Aquila, M. E. A. 2000. Allelopathics effect of Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil. on germination and seedlings growth of Lactuca sativa L. Iheringia Serie Botanica 53: 51-66. (2)MIRÓ, C. P., A. G. FERREIRA and M. E. A. AQUILA. 1998. ALLELOPATHY OF RIPE FRUITS OF ILEX PARAGUARIENSIS ("MATE") ON CORN CULTIVATION. Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira 33(8)

4.03

No evidence.

4.04

Unknown for Ilex paraguariensis, as some related taxa (I. vomitoria, I. longipes) are palatable to animals and others (I. cassine) are not. (1)One deciduous and two broadleaf evergreen species of palatable deer browse were grown under three controlled levels of light reduction: 0,55, and 92%shade. Determinations of nutrient composition and dry-matter digestibility were conducted on leaf tissues collected 7 months each year for 2 years. Throughout the year crude protein and the cell-wall constituents, acid-detergent fiber and cellulose, increased as shade deepened. Phosphorus and calcium levels, generally highest under deep shade, showed little difference in content between moderate shade or full sunlight. Reduced light did not affect the acid-detergent lignin content in deciduous dogwood leaves, but, in evergreen yaupon and honeysuckle, lignin content was highest in deep shade. Highly digestible cell solubles and apparent digestible energy content declined as shade increased. Dry-matter digestibility also declined as shade deepened, except the dry matter of dogwood leaves, either in full sun or in moderate shade, did not differ in metabolic usefulness. Seasonally, all leaves were most nutritious and digestible during spring refoliation. In winter, abscised and weathered dogwood leaves afforded little food value to deer, but the quality and digestibility of yaupon and honeysuckle leaves remained relatively high during this stress period. (2)The leaves of yaupon are considered highly palatable to white-tailed deer (3)Dahoon (Ilex Cassine L.) is not palatable to browse animals. Dahoon (Ilex Cassine L.) is not palatable to grazing animals. Dahoon (Ilex Cassine L.) is not palatable to humans. (4)The palatability of American holly to white-tailed deer and cattle is considered poor. Deer and cattle generally consume American holly only when more preferred browse is unavailable. (4)Palatability ratings of browse species for deer of eastern Texas. FIRST CHOICE: List includes Ilex longipes and I. vomitoria.

(1)Blair, R.M., R. Alcaniz, and A. Harrell. 1983. Shade Intensity Influences the Nutrient Quality and Digestibility of Southern Deer Browse Leaves. J. Range Manage. 36(2): 257-264. (2)http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/ilevom/all.html [Accessed 13 Feb 2008] (3)http://www.thegrowspot.com/know/f7/all-about-dahoon-ilex-cassine-l-25170.html [Accessed 13 Feb 2008] (4)http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ileopa/all.html [Accessed 13 Feb 2008] (4)Lay, D. W. 1967. Deer Range Appraisal in Eastern Texas. The Journal of Wildlife Management 31(3): 426-432.

4.05

No evidence, but unlikely as foliage is used to produce a beverage for human consumption. (1)Yerba Mate tea, an infusion made from the leaves of the tree Ilex paraguariensis, is a widely consumed nonalcoholic beverage in South America which is gaining rapid introduction into the world market, either as tea itself or as ingredient in formulated foods or dietary supplements. The indigenous people have used it for centuries as a social and medicinal beverage. Yerba Mate has been shown to be hypocholesterolemic, hepatoprotective, central nervous system stimulant, diuretic, and to benefit the cardiovascular system. It has also been suggested for obesity management. Yerba Mate protects DNA from oxidation and in vitro low-density lipoprotein lipoperoxidation and has a high antioxidant capacity. It has also been reported that Yerba Mate tea is associated to both the prevention and the cause of some types of cancers. Yerba Mate has gained public attention outside of South America, namely the United States and Europe, and research on this tea has been expanding. This review presents the usage, chemistry, biological activities, health effects, and some technological considerations for processing of Yerba Mate tea. Furthermore, it assesses in a concise and comprehensive way the potential of Ilex paraguariensis as a source of biological compounds for the nutraceutical industry.

4.06

No evidence that this plant is a primary host of crop pests or pathogens. (1)Pests recorded Insects: Ceroplastes grandis, Gyropsylla spegazziniana Hedypathes betulinus, Hylesia Isomerida picticollis, Thelosia camina Fungus diseases: Colletotrichum Cylindrocladium spathulatum Pests recorded at the generic level (Ilex): Insects: Ceroplastes ceriferus (Indian wax scale) Ceroplastes floridensis (soft scale) Ceroplastes rubens (red wax scale) Coccus hesperidum (brown soft scale) Diaprepes abbreviatus (citrus weevil) Diaspidiotus perniciosus (San José scale) Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis (black tea thrips) Otiorhynchus armadillo (armadillo weevil) Pulvinaria psidii (green shield scale) Saissetia oleae (olive scale) Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis (evergreen bagworm) Trichoferus campestris Zeuzera pyrina (moth, wood leopard)Fungus diseases: Chalara elegans (black root rot)

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.07

No evidence, but unlikely as foliage is used to produce a beverage for human consumption that purportedly has health benefits including anti-allergy properties. (1)Yerba Mate tea, an infusion made from the leaves of the tree Ilex paraguariensis, is a widely consumed nonalcoholic beverage in South America which is gaining rapid introduction into the world market, either as tea itself or as ingredient in formulated foods or dietary supplements. The indigenous people have used it for centuries as a social and medicinal beverage. Yerba Mate has been shown to be hypocholesterolemic, hepatoprotective, central nervous system stimulant, diuretic, and to benefit the cardiovascular system. It has also been suggested for obesity management. Yerba Mate protects DNA from oxidation and in vitro low-density lipoprotein lipoperoxidation and has a high antioxidant capacity. It has also been reported that Yerba Mate tea is associated to both the prevention and the cause of some types of cancers. Yerba Mate has gained public attention outside of South America, namely the United States and Europe, and research on this tea has been expanding. This review presents the usage, chemistry, biological activities, health effects, and some technological considerations for processing of Yerba Mate tea. Furthermore, it assesses in a concise and comprehensive way the potential of Ilex paraguariensis as a source of biological compounds for the nutraceutical industry. (2)Main Actions (in order): stimulant, tonic (tones, balances, strengthens overall body functions), thermogenic (increase fat-burning), nervine (balances/calms nerves), anti-allergy

(1)Heck CI and E. G. de Mejia. 2007. Yerba Mate Tea (Ilex paraguariensis): a comprehensive review on chemistry, health implications, and technological considerations. J Food Sci. 72(9):138-51. (2)http://www.rain-tree.com/yerbamate.htm [Accessed 14 Feb 2008]

4.08

No evidence, but unlikely given growth habit.

4.09

(1)Although it is almost always produced as a monoculture in full sun, yerba mate can be grown in shade under native trees. (2)Abstract: Maté (Ilex paraguariensis A. St. Hil.) is a shade-tolerant species, frequently cultivated on agroforestry systems or even in monoculture. Secondary metabolism of maté includes the methylxanthines, caffeine and theobromine. Shading could alter the quantitative profile of these compounds in the plant, and since the secondary chemistry of maté is decisive to determine the quality of raw material, the caffeine and theobromine content under different light intensities were investigated. Artificial shading obtained by a nylon screen and natural shading produced by other trees were tested. Methylxanthines content was increased with the reduction of light, but only in the low light intensity treatment. A negative correlation was found between biomass accumulation and methylxanthines content. But the total methylxanthines yield per plant was not altered.

(1)Eibl B., Fernandez R.A., Kozarik J.C., Lupi A., Montagnini F. and Nozzi D. 2000. Agroforestry systems with Ilex paraguariensis (American holly or yerba mate) and native timber trees on small farms in Misiones, Argentina. Agroforest. Syst. 48: 1–8. (2)Coelho, G. C., M. F.G. Rachwal, R. A. Dedecek, G. R. Curcio, K. Nietsche and E. P. Schenkel. 2007. Effect of light intensity on methylxanthine contents of Ilex paraguariensis A. St. Hil. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 35(2): 75-80.

4.10

(1)Mate occurs on slightly acid tropical oxysol type soils, which are high in iron. These are often poorly drained and may have a hardpan. The pH is usually acid, down to 4.5. (2)At higher pH levels, mate growth ratesand quality (mineral content) tend to decline. (3)It requires lateritic, acid (pH between 5.8 and 6.8) soils that are of medium to fine texture. (3)Soil descriptors
- Soil texture: light; medium
- Soil drainage: free
- Soil reaction: acid

(1)http://www.crop.cri.nz/home/products-services/publications/broadsheets/135matetea.pdf [Accessed 12 Feb 2008] (2)http://www.fndc.govt.nz/misc/SoilClimate/yerbamate.pdf [Accessed 12 Feb 2008] (3)http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0646e/T0646E0n.htm [Accessed 12 Feb 2008] (3)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.11

Woody tree.

4.12

No evidence that this species forms stands in natural settings.

5.01

Terrestrial tree.

5.02

Aquifoliaceae

5.03

Aquifoliaceae

5.04

Woody tree.

6.01

Unknown. Evidence of low seed viability, but no evidence of natural controlling factors. (1)In wild South American Ilex species and in the maté-growing region, the risks of genetic erosion are high because the natural forest is gradually giving way to agroforestry and livestock production, a process accentuated by the relatively low germinating capacity of many species (especially that of maté).

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/1492/mate.html [Accessed 14 Feb 2008]

6.02

(1)Plants are either female or male and are propagated from cuttings. These flower as soon as they are established. Seed establishment is possible but slow and unreliable. (2)Sexual propagation ("seeds" = pyrenes). This is the most common reproduction technique. In the case of maté, the advantage of sexual propagation lies in the fact that the variability in descendants may give rise to individuals better suited to different environments

(1)http://www.crop.cri.nz/home/products-services/publications/broadsheets/135matetea.pdf [Accessed 12 Feb 2008] (2)http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0646e/T0646E0n.htm [Accessed 12 Feb 2008]

6.03

Unknown

6.04

(1)Cross-pollination is reinforced by dioecism.

(1)Zomlefer, W. B. 1994. Guide To Flowering Plant Families. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC.

6.05

(1)The small and inconspicuous flowers of most hollies are entomophilous, although wind may aid in the pollination of some species…Glands on the adaxial surface of the petals secrete some nectar, and the inconspicuous flowers commonly attract bees as principal pollinators.

(1)Zomlefer, W. B. 1994. Guide To Flowering Plant Families. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC.

6.06

Unlikely, given difficulty of vegetative propagation. (1)Agamic reproduction. Grafting, propagation by cuttings and layering are not very widespread. It is relatively difficult to obtain rooted cuttings and this is generally achieved by using young branches from the stools, irrespective of whether plant hormone treatment is used. Additional experiments are necessary if the intention is to increase the rooting percentage.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/1492/mate.html [Accessed 14 Feb 2008]

6.07

Probably more than one year due to slow maturation and germination of seeds and slower maturation of woody tree species. (1)Like other species of Ilex (Hu 1975, Ives 1923), the seeds of I. paraguariensis contain rudimentary embryos that remain in the immature, heart-shaped stage a long time after fruits reach maturity. Niklas (1987) reported that when fruits of I. paraguariensis are ripe only about 1% of the seeds contain mature embryos, and 99% of the seeds have embryos either in the heart stage (70%) or torpedo stage (29%). As a result, seed germination is delayed, and a minimum of 5–9 months under appropriate environmental conditions is required for embryo maturation (Fontana et al. 1990).

(1)Sansberro, P. A., H. Y. Rey, L. A. Mroginski and M. M. Collavino. 1998. In Vitro Culture of Rudimentary Embryos of Ilex paraguariensis: Responses to Exogenous Cytokinins. J Plant Growth Regul 17:101–105.

7.01

Unknown, but relatively small seed size of Ilex spp. makes dispersal in mud of boots, tires etc. theoretically possible. Growing along trails of Oahu. (1)Pyrenes ca. 3 mm long

(1)Zomlefer, W. B. 1994. Guide To Flowering Plant Families. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC.

7.02

Economically important crop. (1)One of the Atlantic forest region’s most widespread crops is the native yerba mate, Ilex paraguariensis, whose leaves are used to make mate (hot tea) and terere (cold tea).

(1)Cockle, K. L., M. L. Leonard, A. A. Bodrati. 2005. Presence and abundance of birds in an Atlantic forest reserve and adjacent plantation of shade-grown yerba mate, in Paraguay. Biodiversity and Conservation 14(13): 3265-3288.

7.03

No evidence, but possible as leaves are harvested to produce the beverage mate.

7.04

Fleshy, drupaceous fruit. (1)Fruit dark red to brownish, ca. 6 mm in diameter. (2)Plantations with structural and floristic diversity and abundant edible fruit (including plantations, like ours, where the canopy consisted of remnant forest trees; Alves 1990; Greenberg et al. 1997b; Calvo and Blake 1998) tend to support a greater diversity of birds, particularly canopy frugivores, compared to less diverse plantations without fruit (3)The brightly colored drupes are disseminated by birds. (4)Farmers report that birds eat mate fruits and then transport the seeds to surrounding areas

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes). (2)Cockle, K. L., M. L. Leonard, A. A. Bodrati. 2005. Presence and abundance of birds in an Atlantic forest reserve and adjacent plantation of shade-grown yerba mate, in Paraguay. Biodiversity and Conservation 14(13): 3265-3288. (3)Zomlefer, W. B. 1994. Guide To Flowering Plant Families. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC. (4)Gauer, L. and S. Cavalli-Molina. 2000. Genetic variation in natural populations of maté (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil., Aquifoliaceae) using RAPD markers. Heredity 84 (6), 647–656.

7.05

Fleshy, drupaceous fruit not adapted for water dispersal. (1)Fruit dark red to brownish, ca. 6 mm in diameter. (2)Plantations with structural and floristic diversity and abundant edible fruit (including plantations, like ours, where the canopy consisted of remnant forest trees; Alves 1990; Greenberg et al. 1997b; Calvo and Blake 1998) tend to support a greater diversity of birds, particularly canopy frugivores, compared to less diverse plantations without fruit (3)The brightly colored drupes are disseminated by birds. (4)Farmers report that birds eat mate fruits and then transport the seeds to surrounding areas

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes). (2)Cockle, K. L., M. L. Leonard, A. A. Bodrati. 2005. Presence and abundance of birds in an Atlantic forest reserve and adjacent plantation of shade-grown yerba mate, in Paraguay. Biodiversity and Conservation 14(13): 3265-3288. (3)Zomlefer, W. B. 1994. Guide To Flowering Plant Families. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC. (4)Gauer, L. and S. Cavalli-Molina. 2000. Genetic variation in natural populations of maté (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil., Aquifoliaceae) using RAPD markers. Heredity 84 (6), 647–656.

7.06

Fleshy, drupaceous fruit. (1)Fruit dark red to brownish, ca. 6 mm in diameter. (2)Plantations with structural and floristic diversity and abundant edible fruit (including plantations, like ours, where the canopy consisted of remnant forest trees; Alves 1990; Greenberg et al. 1997b; Calvo and Blake 1998) tend to support a greater diversity of birds, particularly canopy frugivores, compared to less diverse plantations without fruit (3)The brightly colored drupes are disseminated by birds. (4)Farmers report that birds eat mate fruits and then transport the seeds to surrounding areas

(1)Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes). (2)Cockle, K. L., M. L. Leonard, A. A. Bodrati. 2005. Presence and abundance of birds in an Atlantic forest reserve and adjacent plantation of shade-grown yerba mate, in Paraguay. Biodiversity and Conservation 14(13): 3265-3288. (3)Zomlefer, W. B. 1994. Guide To Flowering Plant Families. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC. (4)Gauer, L. and S. Cavalli-Molina. 2000. Genetic variation in natural populations of maté (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil., Aquifoliaceae) using RAPD markers. Heredity 84 (6), 647–656.

7.07

No mechanisms for external attachment.

7.08

Fleshy, drupaceous fruit. (1)Fruit dark red to brownish, ca. 6 mm in diameter. (2)Plantations with structural and floristic diversity and abundant edible fruit (including plantations, like ours, where the canopy consisted of remnant forest trees; Alves 1990; Greenberg et al. 1997b; Calvo and Blake 1998) tend to support a greater diversity of birds, particularly canopy frugivores, compared to less diverse plantations without fruit (3)The brightly colored drupes are disseminated by birds. (4)Farmers report that birds eat mate fruits and then transport the seeds to surrounding areas

8.01

No quantitative information, but tree size and prolific fruit production of related species suggest a mature tree could produce seed densities in excess of 1000/m2/yr. (1)The maté is a dioecious evergreen tree which grows up to 18 m in height...The fruit is in a nucule; there are four or five single seed pyrenes (propagules).

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/1492/mate.html [Accessed 14 Feb 2008] (2)http://www.duke.edu/~cwcook/trees/ilvo.html [Accessed 14 Feb 2008]

8.02

Slow maturation of pyrenes in fruits suggest the formation of a seed bank, but propagation evidence suggests that seeds quickly lost viability. (1)There is a rudimentary embryo in many externally ripe seeds which causes a long period of germination from the time of sowing. (2)Like other species of Ilex (Hu 1975, Ives 1923), the seeds of I. paraguariensis contain rudimentary embryos that remain in the immature, heart-shaped stage a long time after fruits reach maturity. Niklas (1987) reported that when fruits of I. paraguariensis are ripe only about 1% of the seeds contain mature embryos, and 99% of the seeds have embryos either in the heart stage (70%) or torpedo stage (29%). As a result, seed germination is delayed, and a minimum of 5–9 months under appropriate environmental conditions is required for embryo maturation (Fontana et al. 1990). (3)The seeds are harvested in the region (from February to April). They must be stratified or sown immediately, otherwise they quickly lose their viability.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/1492/mate.html [Accessed 14 Feb 2008] (2)Sansberro, P. A., H. Y. Rey, L. A. Mroginski and M. M. Collavino. 1998. In Vitro Culture of Rudimentary Embryos of Ilex paraguariensis: Responses to Exogenous Cytokinins. J Plant Growth Regul 17:101–105. (3)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/1492/mate.html [Accessed 14 Feb 2008]

8.03

Unknown

8.04

(1)- Ability to coppice; pollard

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

8.05

Unknown.