Gmelina arborea Roxb. Family - Verbenaceae. Common names - candahar, kashmir tree, white teak, goomar teak.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated? (If answer is 'no' then go to question 2.01)

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

n

0

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n

0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

y

2

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

4.03

Parasitic

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

n

0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y

1

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

n

0

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

n

0

5.02

Grass

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

4

-1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

n

-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y

1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y

1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

n

-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

n

-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

Total score:

2

Second Screening

Low risk

Notes

Reference

1.01

No evidence

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gmelina_arborea.html [6 Dec 2007] (2) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1) Estimated to range from Tropical Very Dry to Wet through Subtropical Very Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, gmelina is reported or estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 45 dm (NAS, 1980a), annual temperature of 20 to 26°C, and pH of 6 to 8. It can tolerate a 6–7-month dry season. (2) G. arborea grows best in the tropics, especially in low-lying areas. However, it is found naturally in subtropical climates up to 1200 m altitude in India (Greaves, 1981). The absolute maximum temperature varies from 38°C to 48°C. The optimum climate for the species is in areas with a short dry period of 3-5 months and an average relative humidity of about 40%. Average monthly temperatures generally between 18 and 35°C for the coolest and warmest months, respectively. Average annual rainfall generally between 900 and 2300 mm (Troup, 1921; Greaves, 1981; Webb et al., 1984).

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gmelina_arborea.html [6 Dec 2007] (2) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.02

2.03

(1) Climatic amplitude (estimates)
- Altitude range: 1 - 1200 m
- Mean annual rainfall: 1000 - 4500 mm
- Rainfall regime: summer
- Dry season duration: 1 - 6 months
- Mean annual temperature: 21 - 28ºC
- Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 24 - 35ºC
- Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 14 - 24ºC
- Absolute minimum temperature: > 5ºC [borderline elevation range but high absolute minimum temp, suggesting relatively narrow climate tolerance]

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International

2.04

(1) Distribution: Native to tropical moist forest from India, Burma, and Sri Lanka to southern China, Gmelina is widely introduced, e.g. in Brazil, Gambia, Honduras, Ivory Coast, Malaysia, Malawi, Nigeria, Panama, Philippines, and Sierra Leone.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gmelina_arborea.html [6 Dec 2007]

2.05

(1) The species has been introduced widely to countries in the tropics, with the largest plantations having been formed in Africa, particularly West Africa, and in South and Central America. There were some 130,000 and 36,000 hectares respectively in the two countries by early 1990 (FAO/UNEP, 1981, FAO, 1993, Morel, 1984, Pandey, 1992, Hornick, Zerbe, & Whitmore, 1984). The largest plantations are found in: Nigeria, Brasil, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Cameroun, Colombia, Venezuela, Costa Rica, Malaysia, and Solomon Islands. Most plantations have been planned for paper-pulp production. In Asia and the Pacific large plantations have been established in the Phillippines, and Malaysia, Fiji Islands, Solomon Islands, and Indonesia is planting an increasing area with the species. In all there is an estimated 50,000 hectares in Asia and the Pacific.

(1) Lauridsen, E.B. and E.D. Kjaer. 2002. Provenance research in Gmelina arborea Linn., Roxb. A summary of results from three decades of research and a discussion of how to use them. International Forestry Review 4(1): 1-15.

3.01

No descriptions of naturalization events, but multiple mentions of Gmelina as natualized outside native range. (1) Gmelina arboreca is spreading on ‘Atiu but its extent presently seems to be limited. Bill Sykes (pers. com.) reports that it is also present on Rarotonga, but it was not seen during this survey and its status there is unknown. (2) Exotic tree species in the country that are considered invasive (at least because they are also host of insect pests includes: Gmelina arborea, Acacia mangium, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Swietenia macrophylla. (3) Listed as naturalized in Puerto Rico (4) Listed as naturalized in the Northern Territory of Australia, given an Australian Rating of "2", or "Naturalised and known to be a minor problem warranting control at 3 or fewer locations within a State or Territory" and given an Environmental Score of "Environmental Weed". (5) Listed among the ten most serious invasive garden plants available for sale in the ‘Top End’ of the Northern Territory.

(1) Space, J. C. and T. Flynn. 2002. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp. (2) Joshi, R.C. Invasive alien species (IAS): Concerns and status in the Philippines. Available from www.agnet.org/activities/sw/2006/589543823/paper-729213301.pdf (3) http://www.regionalconservation.org/ircs/database/plants/
PlantPagePR.asp?TXCODE=Gmelarbo [10 Dec 2007] (4) wwf.org.au/publications/ListInvasivePlants.pdf [10 Dec 2007] (5) http://www.weeds.org.au/docs/jumping_the_garden_fence.pdf [10 Dec 2007]

3.02

(1) Not listed as Garden/amenity/disturbance weed

(1) http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/gmelina_arborea/ [10 Dec 2007]

3.03

(1) Listed as an agricultural weed, but no evidence of impacts.

(1) http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/gmelina_arborea/ [10 Dec 2007]

3.04

No evidence of impacts. (1) Listed as naturalized in the Northern Territory of Australia, given an Australian Rating of "2", or "Naturalised and known to be a minor problem warranting control at 3 or fewer locations within a State or Territory" and given an Environmental Score of "Environmental Weed".

(1) wwf.org.au/publications/ListInvasivePlants.pdf [10 Dec 2007]

3.05

(1) G. elliptica predominantly impacts grazing pastures (S. Csurhes pers. comm), and grows in scrubby forests, and often in dry intermittent water courses (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992). It is also likely to infest disturbed areas (S. Csurhes pers. comm). This species forms dense thickets in grazing pastures that are impenetrable to stock (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992; S. Csurhes pers. comm). ‘If left uncontrolled, it could spread over substantial areas, rendering land useless’ (QLD DNRM 2005). G. elliptica is an undesirable species in pastures and has the potential to become an environmental weed (B. Waterhouse pers. comm). Groves et al. (2003) identify this species as a minor problem naturalised in agricultural and natural ecosystems, warranting control at three or fewer locations. This species occurring in Queensland was first thought to be G. asiatica and is described under this name in Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992), but has been recently confirmed as G. elliptica. G. elliptica is classified as a class 1 declared plant of Queensland, and features on the declared plants of Queensland website (QLD DNRM 2005). Three species of Gmelina (including G. elliptica) are listed in A Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall 2002).

(1) Cunningham, D. and L. Brown. 2006. Some priority agricultural sleeper weeds for eradication. Australian Government. Bureau of Rural Sciences. Available from http://affashop.gov.au/PdfFiles/sleeper_weeds_report_2006.pdf [10 Dec 2007].

4.01

(1) Deciduous tree 12–30 m high and 60–100 cm in diameter. Bark light gray or gray-yellow, smooth, thin, somewhat corking, becoming brown and rough; twigs stout, often slightly 4-angled. Leaves opposite, broadly ovate, 10–20 cm long, 7–13 cm wide; base with 2–4 glands beneath, acuminate, entire, with 3 or 5 main veins from near base and 2–5 pairs of side veins, underneath velvety with yellow-brown hairs. Petiole 5–12 cm long, hairy. Cymes paniculate at ends of twigs, 15–30 cm long, branched, densely hairy.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gmelina_arborea.html [6 Dec 2007]

4.02

Unknown in natural settings. (1) Abstract: The allelopathic potential of Gmelina arborea was tested on tomato. Seeds were placed under indirect natural light on Petri dishes (four replications, 20 seeds each) with absorbent paper. Three solutions were added: water, and 0.2 and 0.4 g/ml of mature leaves collected from three two year-old trees. The experiment was repeated under more intense light. The same solutions were added to pots with a mixture of soil and sand (four replications, ten plants each). There was a negative effect of the leaf extracts on germination (especially under low light), growth and total biomass (at least a 9.1, 33.3 and 62.9% reduction, respectively). Roots were proportionately more affected. (2) Abstract: Experiments were conducted to investigate the potential allelopathic effects of Acioa barteri, Cassia siamea, Gmelina arborea and Flemingia macrophylla leaf material on the germination of maize and early growth of cassava cuttings. Incubation of maize seeds with freshly added G. arborea and C. siamea leaf material reduced germination by 35%. The effect was insignificant if leaf material was prone to microbial activity for 2 weeks before incubation of the seeds. Under non-sterile conditions, F. macrophylla and A. barteri leaf material reduced root number of maize seedlings significantly; root and shoot weight per seedling were reduced by 50%. Under sterile conditions G. arborea and C. siamea leaf material reduced germination and root number per seedling significantly at 7 days after inoculation (DAI). Root weight per germinated seed was significantly reduced at 7 DAI (P=0.25) and 13 DAI (P=0.05). F. macrophylla and A. barteri leaf material reduced root weight per germinated seedling at 13 DAI. Early development of cassava was retarded by amendments with A. barteri leaves. G. arborea leaf material retarded fungal growth. The potential benefits of this property are outweighed by the reduction of maize and cassava yields.

(1) Ramirez, S. and J.F Di Stefano. 1994. Allelopathic potential of Gmelina arborea (Verbenaceae). Revista de Biologia Tropical 42 (3) : 729-732. (2) Hauser, S. 1993. Effect of Acioa barteri, Cassia siamea, Flemingia macrophylla and Gmelina arborea leaves on germination and early development of maize and cassava. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 45(3-4): 263-273.

4.03

No evidence.

4.04

(1) Cattle may eat the foliage and bark; seeds and foliage are consumed avidly by rabbits and deer. (2) Around the edge of the plantation, rusa deer cause significant damage to young Albizia falcataria and Gmelina arborea trees, but this has been partly countered by planting unpalatable species in these areas [palatable to deer].

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gmelina_arborea.html [6 Dec 2007] (2) Duff, A. B., R.A. Hall, and C.W. Marsh. 1984. A SURVEY OF WILDLIFE IN AND AROUND A COMMERCIAL TREE PLANTATION IN SABAH MALAYSIA. Malaysian Forester 47 (3-4) : 197-213.

4.05

(1) Food: The fruit of G. arborea is edible. Fodder: Leaves are regarded as good fodder and cattle eat the fruit.

(1) http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases
/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=914 [7 Dec 2007]

4.06

Numerous pests and diseases affect Gmelina, but it is unknown what effect they may have on crop/production yields of native plant populations. (1) Fungal attacks are less prevalent, but can cause damage to G. arborea stands. Bagchee (1952) recorded a leaf spot leading to defoliation caused by a Gnomonia sp. A Poria species attacks G. arborea in India and Bangladash during waterlogging (Bagchee, 1952, 1953). A powdery mildew, Phyllactinia suffulta var. gmelinae, attacks leaves but does not seriously affect the whole tree. Outside its the natural distribution of G. arborea, fungal diseases are mainly root diseases found in Africa and Latin America. Root diseases of nursery seedlings are normally caused by Gibberella fujikuroi in Gambia and Sclerotium rolfsii in Sierra Leone, Gambia and Nigeria (Gibson, 1975). Thanatephorus cucumeris, Chaetophoma sp., Polyporous and Armillaria mellea are also causal agents of root diseases in Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire (Gibson, 1975). In Amazonia, Ceratocystis fimbriata, which is

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2) Wingfield, M. J. and D.J. Robison. 2004. Diseases and insect pests of Gmelina arborea: real threats and real opportunities. New Forests 28 (2-3) : 227-243.

4.07

no evidence

4.08

(1) it forms a leaf carpet beneath trees, creating a mild fire hazard in times of prolonged drought.

(1) http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases
/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=914 [7 Dec 2007]

4.09

(1) Although casting a dense shade itself, it is intolerant of shade as a seedling. (2) It is a pioneer species and prefers full sunlight, although it can withstand partial shade; it usually colonizes gap openings in disturbed forests. (3) It has been noted that there is a higher percentage of seeds germinating in full sunlight and that shading inhibits the process.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gmelina_arborea.html [6 Dec 2007] (2) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (3) Aminuddin M, Ng FSP, 1982. Influence of light on germination of Pinus caribaea, Gmelina arborea, Sapium baccatum and Vitex pinnata. Malaysian Forester, 45(1):62-68.

4.1

(1) Grows on many soils, acidic laterites to calcareous loams, doing poorly on thin or poor soils with hardpan, dry sands, or heavily leached acidic soils, well-drained basic alluviums. (2) Soil and physiography: G. arborea grows well on a range of soil types, particularly on sandy-loam soils with high site quality and good drainage. It is also found on shallow and rocky dry sites, where as a result of drought it can remain stunted, maintaining a shrubby habit. G. arborea does not grow on waterlogged sites or on peat soils.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gmelina_arborea.html [6 Dec 2007] (2) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.11

Not a vine or liana (1) Deciduous tree 12–30 m high and 60–100 cm in diameter.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gmelina_arborea.html [6 Dec 2007]

4.12

(1) G. arborea is rarely gregarious, although it grows well in pure plantations. It is a pioneer species and prefers full sunlight, although it can withstand partial shade; it usually colonizes gap openings in disturbed forests. (2) It occurs predominantly in semi-deciduous broadleaf forests, often with Tectona grandis (Teak), but has also been reported in a number of different forest ecosystems (Tewari 1995; Lauridsen 2003). Where it occurs naturally, it is never overly abundant with only one to several mature trees per square km of mixed broadleaf forests.

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2) Dvorak, W.S. 2004. World view of Gmelina arborea: opportunities and challenges. New Forest 28: 111–126.

5.01

Terrestrial

5.02

Verbenaceae

5.03

Verbenaceae

5.04

Not a geophyte.

6.01

(1) Abstract: Gmelina arborea is a dry season bloomer. It produces large, brownish-yellow, bisexual and zygomorphic nectariferous flowers. The breeding system involves both self- and cross-pollination, but most of the self-pollinated flowers abort after two weeks of growth. The floral characteristics suggest bee-floral syndrome, but bees, especially Xylocopa bees and passerine birds, pollinated the flowers. The natural fruit set rate is low and it is attributed to selective elimination of self-pollinated fruits, removal of numerous flowers by lorikeets in quest of nectar, large amounts of pollen collection by Amegilla and Apis bees, and availability of low maternal resources during dry season for the growing fruits. The yellow, fleshy fruits are single-seeded. Monkeys ingest and excrete the seeds unaffected; in this manner they contribute to seed dispersal. [Although limited seed set, still able to reproduce in native range] (2) Abstract: The paper describes the composition and status of regeneration in a proposed biodiversity conservation area (Bamerchara and Danerchara). Chittagong, Bangladesh. A stratified random quadrat method was used to study the regeneration status. Total 143 seedlings and saplings of 39 species under 18 families were recorded in the sampled area. Moraceae is the dominant family having 5 species followed by Anacardiaceae, Euphorbieaceae, Myrtaceae, Mimosaceae, Combretaceae and Verbenaceae (3 species each). Tectona grandis has the highest importance value index (31.05) followed by Gmelina arborea. (16.05), Mangifera indica (13.59), Erythrina variegata (12.53) Unidentified-2 (11.06), Bombax ceiba (11.05) Eucalyptus camaldulensis (9.92) and Oroxylum indicum (9.65). The distribution of all the regenerated species is contagious except Tectona grandis, which show random distribution The study of density, frequency, abundance, relative density, relative frequency, relative abundance of various species showed that it is possible to bring the depleted area under complete forest cover through the protection of natural regeneration. [Gmelina arborea able to naturally regenerate in degraded area].

(1) Raju, A. J. Solomon and S.P. Rao. 2006. Pollination by bees and passerine birds and seed dispersal by monkeys in the white teak Gmelina arborea Roxb., a commercially important timber tree species in the Eastern Ghats. Current Science (Bangalore) 90 (2) : 232-236. (2) Al-Amin, M. and M. Alamgir. 2003. Regeneration status in a proposed biodiversity conservation area of Bangladesh. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 53 (2) : 107-115.

6.02

(1) Seeds, retaining their viability for only about 12 months, will benefit from soaking if rain or irrigation is not expected.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gmelina_arborea.html [6 Dec 2007]

6.03

Unknown. (1) Hybrid crosses between G. arborea and other gmelina tree species, if successful, may produce new combinations that are beneficial for both plantations and social forestry projects. Such complementary traits could include better drought resistance and wood properties and greater disease resistance. The other gmelina tree species are not well known, except locally. Small provenance collections should be made of the three or four of the most phenotypically promising tree species in the genus Gmelina to determine if future hybrid crosses are feasible.

(1) Dvorak, W.S. 2004. World view of Gmelina arborea: opportunities and challenges. New Forest 28: 111–126.

6.04

Probably not. Only evidence for self-pollination is anecdotal. (1) Presumably self-pollination is common for this species, because large quantities of fruit are found on isolated trees. Self-pollination is supported further by the favourable structure of the flowers (Greaves, 1981). However, G. arborea may also be insect pollinated. (2) Gmelina arborea is a dry season bloomer. It produces large, brownish-yellow, bisexual and zygomorphic nectariferous flowers. The breeding system involves both self- and cross-pollination, but most of the self-pollinated flowers abort after two weeks of growth. The floral characteristics suggest bee-floral syndrome, but bees, especially Xylocopa bees and passerine birds, pollinated the flowers. The natural fruit set rate is low and it is attributed to selective elimination of self-pollinated fruits, removal of numerous flowers by lorikeets in quest of nectar, large amounts of pollen collection by Amegilla and Apis bees, and availability of low maternal resources during dry season for the growing fruits. The yellow, fleshy fruits are single-seeded. Monkeys ingest and excrete the seeds unaffected; in this manner they contribute to seed dispersal. (3) Abstract: G. arborea, a medium-sized to large tree native to the tropical forests of South and East Asia, is widely cultivated in tropical regions. Investigations of the pollination biology and the breeding system, conducted on trees cultivated in Costa Rica, reveal that the species is self-incompatible and pollinated by medium-sized to large bees. The abundant fruit set on Costa Rican trees suggest that the native bees are effective as pollination vectors for this species. (4) Conflicting information exists on whether gmelina is self-incompatible. Studies in India (Bowen and Eusebio 1983) and Costa Rica (personal communication, D. Zeaser, Ston Forestal) indicate that artificial selfing occasionally produces sound seeds while in a different study in Costa Rica complete incompatibility was found (Bolstad and Bawa 1982).

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2) Raju, A. J. Solomon and S.P. Rao. 2006. Pollination by bees and passerine birds and seed dispersal by monkeys in the white teak Gmelina arborea Roxb., a commercially important timber tree species in the Eastern Ghats. Current Science (Bangalore) 90 (2) : 232-236. (3) Bolstad, P.V. and K.S. Bawa. 1982. SELF INCOMPATIBILITY IN GMELINA-ARBOREA VERBENACEAE. Silvae Genetica 31 (1) : 19-21. (4) Dvorak, W.S. 2004. World view of Gmelina arborea: opportunities and challenges. New Forest 28: 111–126.

6.05

(1) Presumably self-pollination is common for this species, because large quantities of fruit are found on isolated trees. Self-pollination is supported further by the favourable structure of the flowers (Greaves, 1981). However, G. arborea may also be insect pollinated. (2) The floral characteristics suggest bee-floral syndrome, but bees, especially Xylocopa bees and passerine birds, pollinated the flowers. (3) Many types of insects visit the flower showing that the flowers may be insect-pollinated.

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2) Raju, A. J. Solomon and S.P. Rao. 2006. Pollination by bees and passerine birds and seed dispersal by monkeys in the white teak Gmelina arborea Roxb., a commercially important timber tree species in the Eastern Ghats. Current Science (Bangalore) 90 (2) : 232-236. (3) http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/
AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=914

6.06

[a tree that does not spread laterally]

6.07

(1) Gmelina arborea begins to flower and set fruit at about 6 to 8 years. (2) The first flowers are borne 3-4 years after planting and, in nature, self-pollination is discouraged by the floral morphology.

(1) http://www.rngr.net/Publications/ttsm/Folder.2003-07-11.4726/PDF.2004-03-03.1531/file [6 Dec 2007] (2) http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/
AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=914 [7 Dec 2007]

7.01

(1) No structures or adaptations for unintentional dispersal. Fruit a drupe, 1.8-2.5 cm long, obovoid, seated on the enlarged calyx, glossy and yellow when ripe; exocarp succulent and aromatic; endocarp bony and usually 2-celled. Seeds 1-3, lenticular, exalbuminous.

(1) http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/
AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=914 [7 Dec 2007]

7.02

(1) With pulping properties superior to most hardwood pulps, gmelina has been planted by the millions, e.g. in the Rio Jari region of Brazil to feed a 750 MT/day kraft pulp mill. In Gambia there are dual purpose plantings, for firewood and for honey. It is often planted as an ornamental avenue shade tree. The wood makes a fairly good charcoal. (2) Gmelina has gained widespread acceptance as a exotic plantation species because of its rapid growth and wide variety of uses. It is estimated that there are approximately 1.0 million hectares of plantations established in the tropics and subtropics (FAO 2002).

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gmelina_arborea.html [6 Dec 2007] (2) Dvorak, W.S. 2004. World view of Gmelina arborea: opportunities and challenges. New Forest 28: 111–126.

7.03

No documentation as a produce contaminant.

7.04

Fleshy fruit without adaptations for wind dispersal. (1) Fruit a drupe, 1.8-2.5 cm long, obovoid, seated on the enlarged calyx, glossy and yellow when ripe; exocarp succulent and aromatic; endocarp bony and usually 2-celled. Seeds 1-3, lenticular, exalbuminous.

(1) http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/
AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=914 [7 Dec 2007]

7.05

Seeds sink (1) When plenty of water is added, the pulp will float while the seeds sink to the bottom (Seeber and Agpaoa, 1976). This method is also suitable for the fruits of Gmelina arboreal, Azadirachta indica, Octoea usambarensis and Cinnamomum camphora and for the syncarps of multiple fruits of Chlorophora and Morus.

(1) http://idrinfo.idrc.ca/archive/corpdocs/074940/chap4_e.html [10 Dec 2007]

7.06

(1) The fruit is a fleshy, oblong drupe, 2 to 3 cm long. The immature green fruits turn yellow with leathery shining pericarp, sweetish pulp, and a hard, bony, stone when ripe. The stone is 1.5 to 2.0 cm long, pointed at one end, and two- or three-celled with two or three seeds.

(1) http://www.rngr.net/Publications/ttsm/Folder.2003-07-11.4726/PDF.2004-03-03.1531/file [6 Dec 2007]

7.07

No mechanism for external attachment. (1) Fruit a drupe, 1.8-2.5 cm long, obovoid, seated on the enlarged calyx, glossy and yellow when ripe; exocarp succulent and aromatic; endocarp bony and usually 2-celled. Seeds 1-3, lenticular, exalbuminous.

(1) http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/
AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=914 [7 Dec 2007]

7.08

(1) Because fresh fruits are eagerly devoured by cattle, the seeds can also be collected from their excretion. (2) Birds and bats, attracted by the smell of fruits, are the main seed dispersal agents.

(1) http://www.rngr.net/Publications/ttsm/Folder.2003-07-11.4726/PDF.2004-03-03.1531/file [6 Dec 2007] (2) http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/
AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=914

8.01

Probably not (1) The fruit is a drupe with sweet flesh; fruit turning yellow while ripening, 2.0-2.5 cm long and with a bony endocarp (stone) in 1-4 cells, though it is rare for all 4 cells to be fertile and each fruit usually has only 2-3 seeds.

(1) CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

8.02

(1) Fresh seeds can be stored in bags in a cool dry place for about 3 months without losing much viability. Fresh seeds show a 90-percent germination rate

(1) http://www.rngr.net/Publications/ttsm/Folder.2003-07-11.4726/PDF.2004-03-03.1531/file [6 Dec 2007]

8.03

Unknown

8.04

(1) Trees coppice well, with 5-year coppice rotations for fuel, longer rotations for timber. (2) Stump planting is also practiced (Troup 1921).
Gmelina arborea coppices well after felling. Coppicing shoots are ready for rooted-cutting production when they are about 60 days old. A section of half-leaf single node is commonly used for rooting with or without rooting hormone.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Gmelina_arborea.html [6 Dec 2007] (2) http://www.rngr.net/Publications/ttsm/Folder.2003-07-11.4726/PDF.2004-03-03.1531/file [6 Dec 2007]

8.05

Don't know.