Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Family - Polygonaceae. Common Names - buckwheat, common buckwheat, fagopyrum. Synonym(s) - Fagopyrum fagopyrum (L.) Karst., Fagopyrum sagittatum Gilib., Fagopyrum vulgare Hill, Polygonum fagopyrum L.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y

-3

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y

1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

n

-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

1

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

n

0

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

n

0

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

1

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n

0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n

0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

y

1

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y

1

4.03

Parasitic

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y

1

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

n

0

5.02

Grass

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

n

-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

n

-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y

1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

n

-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

n

-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

n

-1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

Total score:

-6

Notes

Reference

1.01

(1) Common buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum, has been cultivated from ancient times in many Asian countries such as China, Korea and Japan. However, the place of origin and the processes by which buckwheat cultivation spread have not yet been studied. De Candole (1883) suggested that the region of the Amur river and Siberia is a probable center for the cultivation of common buckwheat; this suggestion was based on philological considerations and on a report on the existence of "wild" common buckwheat by Maximowicz and Ledebour. (2) Common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) has been a crop of secondary importance in many countries and yet it has persisted through centuries of civilization and enters into the agriculture of nearly every country where cereals are cultivated.

(1) Ohnishi, O. 1985. Population genetics of cultivated common buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculeutum Moench. IV. Allozyme variability in Nepali and Kashmirian populations. The Japanese Journal of Genetics 60: 293-305. (2) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

1.02

(1) Collections of Fagopyrum esculentum Moench (Polygonum fagopyrum L.), buckwheat, were made in May and June of 2003 in the Lyndon B. Johnson National Grasslands near Decatur, Texas (Wise County). This native of Central Asia is reported for Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Louisiana by Kartesz (1999). Despite this proximity, it has not previously been reported for Texas (Correll & Johnston 1970; Stanford 1976; Hatch et al. 1990; Diggs et al. 1999). Since other populations of F. esculentum have not been found in North Central Texas, it is unknown if
the species is more widely established. (2) Range & Habitat: Common Buckwheat is an occasional plant that has naturalized in scattered counties across Illinois, primarily in the NE, central, and SW areas of the state. It was introduced into Europe from central Asia during the Middle Ages, and consequently introduced into the United States. Habitats include fields, areas along roads and roadsides, irregularly mowed lawns, and waste areas. (3) Fagopyrum esculentum Moench Polygonum fagopyrum L. WA (naturalised), Qld (doubtfully naturalised), NSW (naturalised), Vic (sparingly naturalised)

(1) O’Kennon, R.J., C. McLemore and A. K. Neill. 2003. Fagopyrum esculentum (Polygonaceae), New for Texas. SIDA 20(4): 1717–1720. (2) http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/weeds/plants/cm_buckwheat.htm [28 Nov 2007] (3) http://www.chah.gov.au/chah/apc/interim/Polygonaceae.pdf [28 Nov 2007]

1.03

No evidence.

2.01

(1) Buckwheat is a short-duration crop (3-4 months) and requires a moist and cool temperate climate to grow (Joshi and Paroda 1991). Common buckwheat has little tolerance to frost and thus is usually grown at lower altitudes than is Tartary buckwheat. (2) Buckwheat thrives in cool, moist climates. It often wilts during the hottest part of the day, but it quickly recovers in the damp evening air. In Hawaii, buckwheat grows year-round at elevations ranging from sea level to 4000 ft, according to the UDSA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). (3) Buckwheat is a cool climate crop. Its favoured conditions of cool temperatures with a large day/night difference are found at altitude or close to the coast, not in the wheat belt. The flowers will not set seed at temperatures much over 27°C, so too many hot days during flowering will reduce yield. Seedlings can survive a mild spring frost but frost in early autumn before ripe grain is formed can severely affect yield.

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy. (2) http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/GreenManureCrops/buckwheat.pdf [28 Nov 2007] (3) http://www.rirdc.gov.au/pub/handbook/buckwheat.html [29 Nov 2007]

2.02

2.03

(1) Buckwheat is a short-duration crop (3-4 months) and requires a moist and cool temperate climate to grow (Joshi and Paroda 1991). Common buckwheat has little tolerance to frost and thus is usually grown at lower altitudes than is Tartary buckwheat. (2) Buckwheat thrives in cool, moist climates. It often wilts during the hottest part of the day, but it quickly recovers in the damp evening air. In Hawaii, buckwheat grows year-round at elevations ranging from sea level to 4000 ft, according to the UDSA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).[borderline, and original source not available] (3) Elevation: < 500 m [in California]

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy. (2) http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/GreenManureCrops/buckwheat.pdf [28 Nov 2007] (3)http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_JM_treatment.pl?5936,6214,6215

2.04

(1) This then indicates that the species F. esculentum subsp. ancestralis is the wild ancestor of common buckwheat. Therefore, the origin of common buckwheat should be at the location of this species which is the northwest corner of Yunnan province, as this is the distribution of F. esculentum subsp. ancestralis in nature as found to this point (Ohnishi 1995). Li and Yang’s (1992) study of the origin of buckwheat supports Ohnishi’s hypothesis that the province of Anion is the area in which common buckwheat originated.

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

2.05

3.01

(1) Collections of Fagopyrum esculentum Moench (Polygonum fagopyrum L.), buckwheat, were made in May and June of 2003 in the Lyndon B. Johnson National Grasslands near Decatur, Texas (Wise County). This native of Central Asia is reported for Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Louisiana by Kartesz (1999). Despite this proximity, it has not previously been reported for Texas (Correll & Johnston 1970; Stanford 1976; Hatch et al. 1990; Diggs et al. 1999). Since other populations of F. esculentum have not been found in North Central Texas, it is unknown if
the species is more widely established. (2) Range & Habitat: Common Buckwheat is an occasional plant that has naturalized in scattered counties across Illinois, primarily in the NE, central, and SW areas of the state. It was introduced into Europe from central Asia during the Middle Ages, and consequently introduced into the United States. Habitats include fields, areas along roads and roadsides, irregularly mowed lawns, and waste areas. (3) Fagopyrum esculentum Moench Polygonum fagopyrum L. WA (naturalised), Qld (doubtfully naturalised), NSW (naturalised), Vic (sparingly naturalised)

(1) O’Kennon, R.J., C. McLemore and A. K. Neill. 2003. Fagopyrum esculentum (Polygonaceae), New for Texas. SIDA 20(4): 1717–1720. (2) http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/weeds/plants/cm_buckwheat.htm [28 Nov 2007] (3) http://www.chah.gov.au/chah/apc/interim/Polygonaceae.pdf [28 Nov 2007]

3.02

No evidence of impacts or control measures (1) Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum Occasionally turns up in waste places, gardens or cultivated land. (2) Usually cultivated land, occasionally waste ground, nearly always casual. (3) Annual; cultivated and sometimes persisting, cultivated fields, roadsides and disturbed areas; occasional to common.

(1) http://www.enhs.org.uk/chklflowers.htm [28 Nov 2007] (2) Webb, C.J., W.R. Sykes, and P.J Garnock-Jones. 1988. Flora of New Zealand Volume IV: Naturalised Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Dicotyledons. Botany Division, D.S.I.R., Christchurch, New Zealand. (3) http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/A42-100-2003E.pdf [28 Nov 2007]

3.03

No evidence of impacts. (1) Anon (1992). The Grower's Weed Identification Handbook by Family and by Aphabetical Listing. Publication 4030. - Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California. (agricultural weed)

(1) http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/fagopyrum_esculentum/ [28 Nov 2007]

3.04

(1) Fagopyrum esculentum: Australian Rating 1 (Naturalised and may be a minor problem but not considered important enough to warrant control at any location)

(1) National list of naturalised invasive and potentially invasive garden plants. Available on the WWF Australia web site at: http://wwf.org.au/publications/ListInvasivePlants/ [28 Nov 2007]

3.05

(1) Fagopyrum tataricum. A serious weed of cereal and oilseed crops, tartary buckwheat reduces crop yields by as much as 70%. Seeds are difficult to remove from cereals and these lower crop quality. Infestations can occur in pastures and pigs and other livestock suffer severe skin inflammation after eating large quantities and being exposed to sunlight.

(1) http://www.weedsbc.ca/weed_desc/tartary.html [28 Nov 2007]

4.01

(1) This is an annual herb, up to 1 m tall, branched, glabrous (Fig. 1). Leaves are petiolate, blades are ovate-triangular to triangular, 2-8 cm long, with acuminate tips, bases are cordate or approximately hastate; upper leaves are smaller, sessile.

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

4.02

(1) Comparisons of the identified compounds and inhibitive effects of soil extracts indicated that palmitic acid and the gallic acid derivative probably have an important function in the allelopathic root response of buckwheat. [Results of the soil experiment are questionable -- an effect was seen in one year but not when the experiment was repeated in the second year (table 2) (2) Therefore, based on the total activity, as calculated by its concentration and its growth inhibitory effect, it seems that rutin, among the other tested compounds, is the major allelochemical in Polish buckwheat. (3) The growth of cress, lettuce, timothy and ryegrass seedlings was inhibited by the presence of buck wheat seedlings, and increasing the number of buckwheat seedlings increased the growth inhibition. One inhibiting substance was found in the culture solution in which buckwheat seedlings were hydroponically grown for 10 days. These results suggest that buckwheat seedlings may inhibit the neighboring plant growth due to exudation of allelopathic substance into the neighboring environment. Thus, the inhibitory effect of buckwheat was probably caused by allelopathic chemical reactions.[authors acknowledge uncertainty -- see title]

(1) Kalinova, J., N. Vrchotova and J. Triska. 2007. Exudation of allelopathic substances in buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 55 (16) : 6453-6459. (2) Golisz, A., B. Lata, S. W. Gawronski, and Y. Fujii. 2007. Specific and total activities of the allelochemicals identified in buckwheat. Weed Biology and Management 7 (3) : 164-171. (3) Kato-Noguchi, H., H. Sugimoto and M. Yamada. 2007. Buckwheat seedlings may inhibit other plant growth by allelopathic substances. Environment Control in Biology 45 (1) : 27-32.

4.03

No evidence.

4.04

Animals can eat this plant, although it may have some toxic properties. (1) It is also a multipurpose crop. The small leaves and shoots are used as leafy vegetables...The crop is generally dual purpose as the remainder of the crop is harvested for grain and straw...Sportsmen have long known that buckwheat is useful as a food and cover crop for wildlife. Deer eat buckwheat and will begin foraging as soon as a few seeds have developed. (2) The foliage is occasionally eaten by mammalian herbivores, including rabbits, deer, and livestock. However, a photosensitive reaction occurs in light-skinned animals that eat the foliage while in the presence of sunlight. This reaction is called "fagopyrism," producing such symptoms as swelling of the head and neck, blistering of the skin, and seizures.

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy. (2) http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/weeds/plants/cm_buckwheat.htm [28 Nov 2007]

4.05

Animals can eat this plant, although it may have some toxic properties. (1) It is also a multipurpose crop. The small leaves and shoots are used as leafy vegetables...The crop is generally dual purpose as the remainder of the crop is harvested for grain and straw...Sportsmen have long known that buckwheat is useful as a food and cover crop for wildlife. Deer eat buckwheat and will begin foraging as soon as a few seeds have developed. (2) The foliage is occasionally eaten by mammalian herbivores, including rabbits, deer, and livestock. However, a photosensitive reaction occurs in light-skinned animals that eat the foliage while in the presence of sunlight. This reaction is called "fagopyrism," producing such symptoms as swelling of the head and neck, blistering of the skin, and seizures.

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy. (2) http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/weeds/plants/cm_buckwheat.htm [28 Nov 2007]

4.06

(1) The major diseases on buckwheat as reported by Joshi and Paroda are:
Sphacelotheca fagopyri - smut
Septoria polygonicola - leaf spot
Phytophthora fagopyri - root and stem rot
Erysiphe polygoni - powdery mildew
Ascochyta italica - brown leaf spot
Puccinia fagopyri - rust
Sclerotinia libertiana - root and collar rot
Botrytis cinereu - stem rot
Fusarium spp. - root rot
Alfernaria alternata - chlorotic leaf spot
Bipolaris sorokiniana - stipple spot disease
Peronospora ducumeti - downy mildew.
In addition they report that several viruses have been reported to cause reduction
in plant height and losses in grain yield.
The major pests as reported by Joshi and Paroda are:
Acanthecelids obtectus - bruchids
Cirphis spp. - cutworms
Cephitineu sp. - grain moth
Mycetophagus sp. - storage beetles. (2) Pest problems
Buckwheat is relatively free of serious insect and disease
problems. Some of the more common problems
include leaf spot caused by the fungus Ramularia and a
Rhizoctonia root rot. On occasion, buckwheat can be
attacked by aphids, birds, and rodents. Buckwheat can
harbor particularly high numbers of root lesion nematodes
(Pratylynchus penetrans) and is susceptible to rootknot
nematodes, according to NRCS. To minimize nematode
problems in a following cash crop, do not grow
buckwheat in fields when these nematodes are present.

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy. (2) http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/GreenManureCrops/buckwheat.pdf [28 Nov 2007]

4.07

(1) Danger: Parts of plant are poisonous if ingested, Handling plant may cause skin irritation or allergic reaction (2) This plant has caused photosensitivity in some people, only the dehusked grain is considered to be safe. (3) Buckwheat greens are not palatable to humans. If eaten in sufficient quantities, the greens, or their juice, can induce sensitization of the skin to sunlight known as fagopyrism.[6][7] Fair skinned people are particularly susceptible, as are light pigmented livestock. [greens consumed only for medicinal purposes?] (4)Photosensitization has not occurred in humans (Blumstein 1936).

(1) http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/31447/ [28 Nov 2007] (2) http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Fagopyrum+esculentum [28 Nov 2007] (3) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckwheat [28 Nov 2007] (4)http://www.cookiebabyinc.com/poisonousplants/buckwheat.html [Blumstein, G. I. 1936. Buckwheat sensitivity. J. Allergy, 7: 74-79.]

4.08

No evidence

4.09

(1) Sun Exposure: Full Sun

(1) http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/31447/ [28 Nov 2007]

4.10

(1) Soil pH requirements: 5.1 to 5.5 (strongly acidic) 5.6 to 6.0 (acidic) 6.1 to 6.5 (mildly acidic) 6.6 to 7.5 (neutral) 7.6 to 7.8 (mildly alkaline) 7.9 to 8.5 (alkaline) 8.6 to 9.0 (strongly alkaline) (2) The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in heavy clay and nutritionally poor soils. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very acid soil. (3) Buckwheat usually thrives well on infertile soil and on land that has recently been cleared for cultivation. It has good tolerance to acid soils.

(1) http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/31447/ [28 Nov 2007] (2) http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Fagopyrum+esculentum [28 Nov 2007] (3) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

4.11

Only smothers in densely planted cultivation. (1) Smother crop: Buckwheat has been used as a smother crop, owing to the lack of good herbicides for broad-leaved weed control. Buckwheat is generally a very good competitor as it germinates rapidly and the dense canopy that it produces soon shades the soil. Often growers will increase the seeding rate in areas where they expect more weed competition so that the canopy is developed more quickly. This rapidly smothers out most weeds, especially broadleaved ones. If the weed growth gets above the buckwheat canopy, buckwheat becomes a poor competitor. Buckwheat has been cited as being a useful crop for the control of many weeds including quack grass, Canada thistle, sowthistle, creeping jenny, leafy spurge, Russian knapweed and perennial pepper grass (Jensen and Helgeson 1957).

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

4.12

Growth form does not impede movement.

5.01

Terrestrial

5.02

Polygonaceae

5.03

Polygonaceae

5.04

(1) The plants have a short taproot and fine lateral roots producing a root system that is about 3-4% of the weight of the total plant. The plants can therefore suffer from extreme drought conditions which usually results in delayed maturity.

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

6.01

Low seed production everywhere, not just in native habitat. (1) One of the major limitations in common buckwheat appears to be the high amount of seed abortion that occurs. The causative factors for the abortion are not fully understood even though this has been an identified problem for over 30 years.

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

6.02

(1) Certified seed of Manor buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench cv `Manor') were obtained from Letkeman Buckwheat Sales, Walhalla, ND. Seed of New York State Common buckwheat were obtained from New Hope Mills, Moravia, NY All plants were grown in a greenhouse with supplemental fluorescent lighting to give a 14 h daylength. [Plants grown from seeds in study]

(1) Bjorkman, T., C. Samimy and K. J . Pearson. 1995. Variation in pollen performance among plants of Fagopyrum esculentum. Euphytica 82: 235-240.

6.03

(1) As common buckwheat has many characteristics that are desirable for its use as food many efforts have been made to produce interspecific hybrids by using it and the other two species as parents. Most of these results have not been successful. Conventional breeding techniques have not been successful in crossing common and Tartary buckwheat (Morris 1952; Ruszkowski 1980; Adachi et al. 1989). A number of studies on the development of interspecific hybrids have attempted to overcome cross-incompatibility by using embryo or ovule culture systems (Hu and Wang 1986). Successful hybridization of Tartary buckwheat with common buckwheat at the diploid level has been accomplished by Cyrus Samimy and Thomas Bjorkman of Cornell University (pers. corresp.). [No naturally occurring hybrids]

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

6.04

(1) Buckwheat is a completely outcrossing species due to heterostyly and its population size is large, usually more than 104-106; hence we can expect a large amount of genetic variability in populations. (2) Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) is self-incompatible with one ovule per flower, so pollen competition at each ovule can be studied.

6.05

(1) Flowers of cross-pollinating species of buckwheat are attractive to insects because of the nectar secreted by the glands at the base of the ovary. Bees and other insects contribute to the distribution of pollen. The glands secrete nectar only in the morning and early afternoon and therefore if honey bees are introduced to increase seedset they must be forced to work the buckwheat. Cooke and Dalgleish (1969) found that
the alfalfa leafcutter bee is a satisfactory pollinator of buckwheat. In studies at the University of Pennsylvania, however, seedset was not reduced when bees and other relatively large insects were excluded by caging plots of buckwheat (Hartly 1964).Microscopic examination of pistils collected in the field revealed that essentially all flowers were pollinated, even on days unfavourable for insect activity, and pollen
tubes had reached the vicinity of the micropyle (Morton 1966). In a 1964 growth chamber experiment Marshall reported that buckwheat pollen
is transported by wind. Plants that were 30 cm from a wind source set 53 seeds per plant compared with 12 seeds per plant at a distance of 330 cm (Marshall 1969).

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

6.06

(1) Propagation Methods: From seed; direct sow after last frost

(1) http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/31447/ [29 Nov 2007]

6.07

(1) Annual (2) Buckwheat is frequently cultivated for its edible seed and leaves, it can produce a seed crop in 100 days from sowing[141] and a crop of leaves in 8 weeks.

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy. (2) http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Fagopyrum+esculentum

7.01

(1) Achene is triquetrous, acute angle, longer than 5 mm, more than twice the length of the persistent perianths, brown or black-brown, lucid. [achenes are likely to be moved with farm equipment, either in mud on tires or in association with harvests]

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

7.02

(1) The grain is generally used as human food and as animal or poultry feed, with the dehulled groats being cooked as porridge and the flour used in the preparation of pancakes, biscuits, noodles, cereals, etc.

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

7.03

No evidence, but possible if grown with other crops.

7.04

Seeds not adapted for wind dispersal. (1) Achene is triquetrous, acute angle, longer than 5 mm, more than twice the length of the persistent perianths,

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

7.05

Seeds not adapted for water dispersal. (1) Achene is triquetrous, acute angle, longer than 5 mm, more than twice the length of the persistent perianths,

7.06

(1) The grain is also eaten by wild turkeys, pheasant, grouse, waterfowl and other birds [Granivores digest seeds]

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

7.07

No mechanism for attachment (1) Achene is triquetrous, acute angle, longer than 5 mm, more than twice the length of the persistent perianths, brown or black-brown, lucid.

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

7.08

Probably not. Seeds consumed for food. (1) The grain is also eaten by wild turkeys, pheasant, grouse, waterfowl and other birds [Granivores digest seeds]

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

8.01

(1) As common buckwheat has a seed abortion problem so severe that often only approximately 12% of the flowers produce mature seeds, the transfer of the selfpollinating mechanism into common buckwheat may allow for increased yield.

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

8.02

no evidence

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

8.03

(1) Abstract: Field studies were conducted from 1995 to 1997 at Morden and Brandon, Manitoba, Canada, to evaluate the effect of crop growth stage at application on common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench.) tolerance to low rates of 2,4-D amine, MCPA amine and the sodium salt of MCPA. Each formulation was applied at 140 g a.i. ha-1 to common buckwheat at the two- to three-leaf, four- to five-leaf, and six- to eight-leaf stages. Levels of buckwheat injury and seed yield loss were very similar for the three phenoxy herbicide formulations. Although early-season crop injury was severe, injury was often less, and crop recovery from injury greater, when herbicide was applied at the two-leaf stage than at the four-leaf or six-leaf stage. When herbicide was applied at the two-leaf stage, a significant yield reduction occurred in only one of the five trials. However, buckwheat seed yield decreased when phenoxy-herbicide application was delayed past the two-leaf stage. (2) The natural rate of IAA metabolism was markedly different among the plant species and cultivars tested and appeared to be related to the sensitivity of the plants to glyphosate. American germander and Little Marvel pea with high rates of IAA metabolism were more tolerant to glyphosate than buckwheat and Alaska pea, which had lower rates' of IAA metabolism. Plants with a high natural rate of IAA metabolism were probably less dependent on IAA and thus less susceptible to glyphosate.

(1) Wall, D. A. and M. A. H. Smith. 2000. Tolerance of common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) to low rates of 2,4-D and MCPA. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 80 (2) : 407-410. (2) Lee, T.T. and T. Dumas. 1985. EFFECT OF GLYPHOSATE ON IAA METABOLISM IN TOLERANT AND SUSCEPTIBLE PLANTS. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation 4 (1) : 29-40.

8.04

Does not resprout after ploughing. (1) When ploughed under, the plant material decays rapidly, making nitrogen and mineral constituents available for the succeeding crop. The resulting humus improves the physical condition and moisture-holding capacity of the soil.

(1) Campbell, C. G. 1997. Buckwheat. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 19. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.

8.05

Don't know