Excoecaria indica (Willd.) Müll.Arg. Family - Euphorbiaceae. Common Names(s) - Mock Willow. Synonym(s) - Sapium indicum Willdenow.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

0

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

n

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

y

1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

1

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)It ranges from south and east India, Southeast Asia, Malesia, and the Solomon Islands, but not the Philippines.

(1)Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

2.02

(1)It ranges from south and east India, Southeast Asia, Malesia, and the Solomon Islands, but not the Philippines. [native range well known]

(1)Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

2.03

(1)from sea level up to 10 m altitude. It ranges from south and east India, Southeast Asia, Malesia, and the Solomon Islands, but not the Philippines. (2)Other locally restricted species include Heritiera fomes, Aegialitis rotundifolia, Avicennia integra, Avicennia bicolor, Avicennia schaueriana, Excoecaria ovalis, Excoecaria indica, Sonneratia griffithii and Sonneratia apetala. The explanations for many of these disjunctions are undoubtedly to be found in the ecological requirements of the individual species but, in a broad biogeographical sense, temperature and rainfall are probably the main determinants.

(1)Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK. (2)Saenger, P. 1998. Mangrove vegetation: an evolutionary perspective. Mar. Freshwater Res. 49: 277–286.

2.04

(1)It ranges from south and east India, Southeast Asia, Malesia, and the Solomon Islands, but not the Philippines.

(1)Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

2.05

(1)No evidence

(1)Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

3.01

(1)We recorded 23 invasive species, which belong to 18 families and 23 genera (Table 1). Among the identified species, three species are highly invasive, six species are moderately invasive and the remaining are potentially invasive. Climbers (6 out of 23) were the most frequently encountered invasive species followed by trees (5 out of 23) and shrubs (4 out of 23). The three highly invasive plants were Derris trifoliata (climber), Eichhonia crassipes (aquatic shrub) and Eupetorium odoratum, respectively. Of the 23 invasive species only four are exotic or alien [Table 1. Recorded invasive plants from Sundarbans mangrove forests...includes Excoecaria indica (Wild.) Muell.-Arg.as Invasive...impacts include ability to Accumulate allelopathic toxins in the soil affecting biota, poisoning of animals and to Provide habitat and/or shelter for pest animals (and some indigenous animals).] [apparently considering E. indica, a native to India, as invasive in the Sundarbans with possible harmful consequences. Using this reference to qualify E. indica as "naturalized"]

(1)Biswas, S.R., J.K. Choudhury, A. Nishat and Md. Matiur Rahman. 2007. Do invasive plants threaten the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh? Forest Ecology and Management 245(1-3): 1-9 .

3.02

(1)We recorded 23 invasive species, which belong to 18 families and 23 genera (Table 1). Among the identified species, three species are highly invasive, six species are moderately invasive and the remaining are potentially invasive. Climbers (6 out of 23) were the most frequently encountered invasive species followed by trees (5 out of 23) and shrubs (4 out of 23). The three highly invasive plants were Derris trifoliata (climber), Eichhonia crassipes (aquatic shrub) and Eupetorium odoratum, respectively. Of the 23 invasive species only four are exotic or alien [Table 1. Recorded invasive plants from Sundarbans mangrove forests...includes Excoecaria indica (Wild.) Muell.-Arg.as Invasive...impacts include ability to Accumulate allelopathic toxins in the soil affecting biota, poisoning of animals and to Provide habitat and/or shelter for pest animals (and some indigenous animals).] [apparently considering E. indica, a native to India, as invasive in the Sundarbans with possible harmful consequences. Using this reference to qualify E. indica as a naturalized native species outside of its natural distribution. See 3.01]

(1)Biswas, S.R., J.K. Choudhury, A. Nishat and Md. Matiur Rahman. 2007. Do invasive plants threaten the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh? Forest Ecology and Management 245(1-3): 1-9 .

3.03

(1)No evidence

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/scientificnames/scinamee.htm [Accessed 12 Dec 2008]

3.04

(1)E. indica, a native of India, is categorized as a weed with potential environmental impacts to the Sundarbans. The information presented in the paper suggests that E. indica may be having negative ecological impacts in the invaded ecosystem, but at this point, evidence to support a "Yes" answer to Question 3.04 is insufficient. See answer to Question 3.01]

(1)Biswas, S.R., J.K. Choudhury, A. Nishat and Md. Matiur Rahman. 2007. Do invasive plants threaten the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh? Forest Ecology and Management 245(1-3): 1-9 .

3.05

(1)No evidence

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/scientificnames/scinamee.htm [Accessed 12 Dec 2008]

4.01

(1)distinguished from E. agallocha by its thorny trunk

(1)Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

4.02

(1)Accumulate allelopathic toxins in the soil affecting biota, poisoning of animals…Derris trifoliata, Excoecaria indica

(1)Biswas, S.R., J.K. Choudhury, A. Nishat and Md. Matiur Rahman. 2007. Do invasive plants threaten the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh? Forest Ecology and Management 245(1-3): 1-9 .

4.03

(1)No evidence in genus.

(1)Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

4.04

(1)Excoecaria indica was one of the predominant tree species in the study area and produced a lot of fruits throughout a year but neither proboscis monkeys, orangutans or long-tailed macaques consumed any fresh fruits and flowers on the trees, though a group of long-tailed macaques was once observed taking some old and dry E. indica fruits floating in the river. Even young leaves of this plant species were rarely consumed by proboscis monkeys. This species may have some chemicals which are toxic or repellent for the nonhuman primates. (2)Studies have shown that the chital deer browses directly on the mangroves. Its feeding damages Avicennia officinalis, Xylocarpus mekongensis, Bruguiera sexangula, and Aegiceras corniculatum but has no effect on Heritiera fomes, Excoecaria agallocha or Ceriops decandra (Siddiqi and Hussain, 1994). [no browsing damage on related E. agallocha]

(1)Matsuda, I. 2008. Feeding and Ranging Behaviors of Proboscis Monkey Nasalis larvatus in Sabah, Malaysia. Graduate School of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University. Ph.D. Dissertation. (2)Kathiresan, K. and B.L. Bingham. Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems. ADVANCES IN MARINE BIOLOGY VOL 40: 81-251

4.05

(1)Mangroves are biochemically unique, producing a wide array of novel natural products. Excoecaria agallocha, for example, exudes an acrid latex that is injurious to the human eye, hence its designation as “the blinding tree”. The latex is toxic to a variety of marine organisms (Kathiresan and Thangam, 1987; Kathiresan et al., 1990b) and has sublethal effects on the rice-field crab Oziotephusa senex senex, in which exposure decreases whole-animal oxygen consumption and inhibits the ATPase system in gill and hepatopancreas tissues (R. Ramamurthi et al., 1991). Soil bacteria and yeasts degrade the toxic latex, preventing its accumulation in the mangal (Reddy et al., 1991)...However, not all mangrove products are beneficial. Excoecaria agallocha latex is toxic to larvae of the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium lamarrei (Krishnamoorthy et al., 1995) and to penaeid prawns (Kathiresan and Thangam, 1987). [related species toxic in many ways, E. indica assumed to have similar chemical properties] (2)Accumulate allelopathic toxins in the soil affecting biota, poisoning of animals…Derris trifoliata, Excoecaria indica

(1)Kathiresan, K. and B.L. Bingham. Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems. ADVANCES IN MARINE BIOLOGY VOL 40: 81-251 (2)Biswas, S.R., J.K. Choudhury, A. Nishat and Md. Matiur Rahman. 2007. Do invasive plants threaten the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh? Forest Ecology and Management 245(1-3): 1-9 .

4.06

(1)Other fungi are harmful to the living mangroves. Two new parasitic species (Pestalotiopsis agallochae and Cladosporium marinum) have been isolated from the leaves of Excoecaria agallocha and Avicennia marina [unknown if E. indica is a host to important pests or pathogens]

(1)Pal, A.K. and Purkayastha, R.P. 1992. New parasitic fungi from Indian mangrove. Journal of Mycopathological Research 30 (2), 173-176.

4.07

(1)copious white latex that exudes from wounds. This latex is irritating, and contact with it, especially around the mouth and eyes, should be avoided [description of related species E. agallocha] (2)The generic name Excoecaria refers to this poisonous sap. (3)Excoecaria indica Muell. Arg. (syns Sapium indicum Willd., Stillingia indica Baillon) The fruits are used by Malay children to play "marbles". The seeds can be eaten when quite ripe but care should be taken to put nothing more than the seed into the mouth, as the latex which is in the fruit-wall, is caustic (Burkill 1935, Irvine 1961). The latex blisters the skin (Perry & Metzger 1980, Burkill 1935).

(1)Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK. (2)Sahni, K.C. 1998. The Book of Indian Trees. Bombay Natural History Society. Oxford University Press. Oxford, UK. (3)http://bodd.cf.ac.uk/BotDermFolder/EUPH-11.html [Accessed 12 Dec 2008]

4.08

(1)Ecology : Occupies primary Nypa forest in sea water, tidal river banks and sea shores. Also occurs in freshwater swamp forests, along rivers and in evergreen lowland forest up to an altitude of 250 m. Mangrove associate species.

(1)ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/ag132e/ag132e09.pdf [Accessed 12 Dec 2008]

4.09

(1)Shade tolerance differs among mangrove species. Clarke and Allaway (1993) found that shading had no effect on growth or survival of Avicennia marina. But, McKee (1995b) noted that shading with brief periods of light exposure increased biomass and growth in Avicennia germinans and Laguncularia racemosa. The same treatment had little effect on Rhizophora mangle. Ellison and Farnsworth (1993) found that R. mangle seedlings performed better overall in larger canopy gaps. In R. mangle, ontogenetic developments produce changes in light adaptation. Seedlings are apparently adapted for the shaded understory environment while mature trees do better in the sunlit canopy (Farnsworth and Ellison, 1996b). [unknown for E. indica]

(1)Kathiresan, K. and B.L. Bingham. Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems. ADVANCES IN MARINE BIOLOGY VOL 40: 81-251

4.10

(1)mangroves exist under conditions of high salinity, extreme tides, strong winds, high temperatures and muddy, anaerobic soils. There may be no other group of plants with such highly developed morphological, biological, ecological and physiological adaptations to extreme conditions...Mangroves grow luxuriantly in alluvial soils (loose, fine-textured mud or silt, rich in humus)...Given the sensitivity of mangroves to soil conditions, it is essential to study oil effects under conditions that reflect the natural environment as closely as possible [specialized adaptations for growing in particular soil conditions]

(1)Kathiresan, K. and B.L. Bingham. Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems. ADVANCES IN MARINE BIOLOGY VOL 40: 81-251

4.11

(1)tree

(1)Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

4.12

(1)Mangroves in these five countries have experienced intensive logging or conversion to other land uses (e.g. shrimp ponds or rice paddies), and the majority of them are no longer pristine. Human pressure on coastal areas and increasing demand for land for agriculture represent increasing threats to mangroves in these countries. However, in several localities they still form dense and well-structured ecosystems...Mangroves are commonly found in protected coastal bays, estuaries and shallow lagoons or on coral atolls. In northeastern Australia and in the Fly Delta in Papua New Guinea, they form dense and complex forests, which often extend far inland, while on some of the smaller islands such as Nauru and Niue, mangrove trees are found only as narrow belts along the coasts or in small isolated patches and stands. [E. indica possibly forms dense thicket]

(1)Anonymous 2007. The World's Mangroves. 1980-2005. FAO Forestry Paper 153. FAO of the United Nations. Rome, Italy.

5.01

(1)Excoecaria indica (Willd.) Muell.-Arg. was found in considerable numbers in the Tillawatawana Lagoon, Bentota Estuary and Gin Oya, and in smaller numbers in Pambala-Chilaw Lagoon. It may be restricted to mangrove area or appear in the back mangrove where it blends with terrestrial vegetation [in mangrove forest but not truly aquatic]

(1)JAYATISSA, L. P., F. DAHDOUH-GUEBAS and N. KOEDAM. 2002. A review of the floral composition and distribution of mangroves in Sri Lanka. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 138: 29–43.

5.02

(1)Euphorbiaceae

(1)Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

5.03

(1)Euphorbiaceae

(1)Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

5.04

(1)Excoecaria spp. are not geophytes

(1)Kathiresan, K. and B.L. Bingham. Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems. ADVANCES IN MARINE BIOLOGY VOL 40: 81-251

6.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

6.02

(1)Excoecaria indica (Willd.) Muell.-Arg...It is typically distinguished from Excoecaria agallocha L. by its green fruit the size of a cherry, and by its thorny trunk.

(1)JAYATISSA, L. P., F. DAHDOUH-GUEBAS and N. KOEDAM. 2002. A review of the floral composition and distribution of mangroves in Sri Lanka. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 138: 29–43.

6.03

(1)No evidence of Excoecaria hybrids [unknown if members of genus can hybridize]

(1)Kathiresan, K. and B.L. Bingham. Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems. ADVANCES IN MARINE BIOLOGY VOL 40: 81-251

6.04

(1)Excoecaria is distinguished from closely related members of this group by a combination of characters, including the dioecious condition…

(1)Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

6.05

(1)Bees regularly visit and pollinate species of Avicennia, Acanthus, Excoecaria, Rhizophora, Scyphipora, and Xylocarpus.

(1)Kathiresan, K. and B.L. Bingham. Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems. ADVANCES IN MARINE BIOLOGY VOL 40: 81-251

6.06

(1)No evidence, but able to coppice [see 8.04]

(1)Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

6.07

Unknown

7.01

(1)Excoecaria indica (Willd.) Muell.-Arg...It is typically distinguished from Excoecaria agallocha L. by its green fruit the size of a cherry, and by its thorny trunk. [no means of external attachment on seeds or fruit]

(1)JAYATISSA, L. P., F. DAHDOUH-GUEBAS and N. KOEDAM. 2002. A review of the floral composition and distribution of mangroves in Sri Lanka. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 138: 29–43.

7.02

(1)Leaves are used to prepare a black dye to colour yarn and rattan. Young fruits, containing aesculetin in the latex, are used as fish poison. The ripe seeds are used as a vegetable or condiment, after removal of the fruit-wall (the latex of the wall blisters the skin). The hard, round seeds are used by children as marbles (Indonesia). Wood used only for fuel. Leaves are applied to the abdomen to cure fevers; a decoction of the root bark has purgative properties.

(1)ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/ag132e/ag132e09.pdf [Accessed 12 Dec 2008]

7.03

(1)Excoecaria indica (Willd.) Muell.-Arg...It is typically distinguished from Excoecaria agallocha L. by its green fruit the size of a cherry, and by its thorny trunk. [unlikely, not grown with agricultural crops & seeds relatively large]

(1)JAYATISSA, L. P., F. DAHDOUH-GUEBAS and N. KOEDAM. 2002. A review of the floral composition and distribution of mangroves in Sri Lanka. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 138: 29–43.

7.04

(1)Excoecaria indica (Willd.) Muell. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae), also known locally as Ligura which bears hard ball-shaped fruits that resemble marbles that kids like to play with [water dispersed]

(1)Chey, V.K. 2004. Fireflies of Sungai Klias and their display trees. Sepilok Bulletin 1: 67-69.

7.05

(1)More recently, Smith (1999) has followed the arrival of seeds that have drifted onto Australian beaches, identifying them to species or genus and testing them for viability. He notes that dispersal patterns are generally consistent with prevailing winds and currents (e.g., there is a westward drift of propagules toward Australia at all times of year; Smith 1999). He found few drift species that were not native to Australia (e.g., Excoecaria indica, Nypafruticans, Lithocarpus spp., Inocarpusfagifer). However, given the small numbers of seeds and species involved, and the disparity between the number of species that arrive on a beach and the number of species that form viable populations, plant movement by sea currents appears insignificant compared with human-aided movement in fostering the spread of species.

(1)Richard N. Mack and W. Mark Lonsdale. 2001. Humans as Global Plant Dispersers: Getting More Than We Bargained for. BioScience 51(2): 95-102.

7.06

(1)Fruit is a round, woody capsule, 2.5-3 cm in diameter, almost black, 3-seeded [water dispersed]

(1)ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/ag132e/ag132e09.pdf [Accessed 12 Dec 2008]

7.07

(1)Fruit is a round, woody capsule, 2.5-3 cm in diameter, almost black, 3-seeded [water dispersed…no evidence of external animal dispersal]

(1)ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/ag132e/ag132e09.pdf [Accessed 12 Dec 2008]

7.08

(1)Excoecaria indica was one of the predominant tree species in the study area and produced a lot of fruits throughout a year but neither proboscis monkeys, orangutans or long-tailed macaques consumed any fresh fruits and flowers on the trees, though a group of long-tailed macaques was once observed taking some old and dry E. indica fruits floating in the river. Even young leaves of this plant species were rarely consumed by proboscis monkeys. This species may have some chemicals which are toxic or repellent for the nonhuman primates. [probably not, macaques are eating seeds, not fruit, and presumably destroying them. Otherwise, no evidence of animal dispersal]

(1)Matsuda, I. 2008. Feeding and Ranging Behaviors of Proboscis Monkey Nasalis larvatus in Sabah, Malaysia. Graduate School of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University. Ph.D. Dissertation.

8.01

(1)A small tree, up to 18 m tall, usually less than 10 m, smooth and containing white latex. The trunk is short, not buttressed, with greyish, shallowly fissured bark...Fruit is a round, woody capsule, 2.5-3 cm in diameter, almost black, 3-seeded [unlikely given relatively small tree size & few-seeded capsules]

(1)ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/ag132e/ag132e09.pdf [Accessed 12 Dec 2008]

8.02

(1)Probably not. Seed storage for E. agallocha listed as 10 days maximum [related species with similar ecology].

(1)Ravishankar, T. and R. Ramasubramanian. 2004. Manual on mangrove nursery techniques. M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation; Chennai, India. pp 48.

8.03

Probably difficult to control with herbicides given habitat in coastal, semi-aquatic environments

8.04

(1)Vegetative regrowth from stump sprouts (“coppicing”) also occurs in some species (e.g., Excoecaria, Avicennia, Laguncularia, Sonneratia;

(1)Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK.

8.05

Unknown