Euphorbia lathyris L. Small Family - Euphorbiaceae. Common Name(s) mole plant, caper spurge, petroleum plant, gopher plant - . Synonym(s) - Galarhoeus lathyris (L.) Haw., Tithymalus lathyris (L.) Hill.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated? (If answer is 'no' then go to question 2.01)

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

1

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

n

0

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

1

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

y

1

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n

0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

y

1

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y

1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y

1

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y

1

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y

1

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

n

0

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

n

0

5.02

Grass

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

n

-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y

1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y

1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y

1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y

1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

n

-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

n

-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y

1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

Total score:

9

Notes

Reference

1.01

No evidence

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)Native of the Mediterranean...Ecologically the plant is estimated to range from Cool Temperate Dry to Wet through Warm Temperate Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, areas with annual temperatures of 10 to 15°C, annual precipitation of 5 to 15 cm rainfall...In most tropical climates where chilling below 10°C does not exceed 1,000 hours, year-round plantings are satisfactory and planting dates can be chosen to exploit rainfall or cropping rotation

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Euphorbia_lathyris.html [Accessed 03 March 2008]

2.02

2.03

(1)Ecologically the plant is estimated to range from Cool Temperate Dry to Wet through Warm Temperate Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, areas with annual temperatures of 10 to 15°C, annual precipitation of 5 to 15 cm rainfall (2)Climatic requirements – Relatively dry, best in low-lying areas. It is hardy to zone 6. Optimum temperature for growth is a germination temperature of 10ºC, and a growing temperature between 18 and 22ºC. (3)Hardiness: USDA Zone 5b: to -26.1 °C (-15 °F) USDA Zone 6a: to -23.3 °C (-10 °F) USDA Zone 6b: to -20.5 °C (-5 °F) USDA Zone 7a: to -17.7 °C (0 °F) USDA Zone 7b: to -14.9 °C (5 °F) USDA Zone 8a: to -12.2 °C (10 °F) USDA Zone 8b: to -9.4 °C (15 °F) USDA Zone 9a: to -6.6 °C (20 °F) USDA Zone 9b: to -3.8 °C (25 °F) USDA Zone 10a: to -1.1 °C (30 °F)

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Euphorbia_lathyris.html [Accessed 03 March 2008] (2)http://safs.csl.gov.uk/docs/caper_spurge.pdf [Accessed 30 April 2008] (3)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/55261/ [Accessed 30 April 2008]

2.04

(1)Native of the Mediterranean, cultivated as medicinal or ornamental, escaping and self-seeding along the East and West coasts of the United States. [Most records of naturalization from areas with a temperate type climate]

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Euphorbia_lathyris.html [Accessed 03 March 2008]

2.05

(1)Clayton, California; El Cajon, California; Thousand Oaks, California; Ewing, Kentucky; Mason, Michigan; Neptune, New Jersey; Charlotte, North Carolina; Gold Hill, Oregon; Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania; Conway, South Carolina; Toone, Tennessee; Lexington, Virginia; Cusick, Washington; Kalama, Washington; Waterville, Washington; Liberty, West Virginia

(1)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/55261/ [Accessed 30 April 2008]

3.01

(1)Common and persistent in gardens, waste places, cultivated land, riverbeds, and coastal situations. (2) Mesic to dry roadsides and waste places in the lowland zone; rare in SW BC, known only from Victoria and Vancouver; introduced from Europe...naturalized in B.C. (3)Euphorbia lathyris L. caper spurge DISTRIBUTION: North Island except Gisborne; South Island except Westland. (4)a list of 102 species that are either escaped or fully naturalized in Northeast Tennessee [includes Euphorbia lathyris without further notes] (5)Euphorbia lathyris, Fatoua villosa, Thlaspi alliaceum, and Vicia lathyroides are newly established non-natives in the Torrey Range [The Torrey Range includes southeastern New York...northern New Jersey...and southwestern Connecticut (6)Native of the Mediterranean, cultivated as medicinal or ornamental, escaping and self-seeding along the East and West coasts of the United States.

(1)Webb, C. J., W. R. Sykes and P. J. Garnock-Jones. 1988. Flora of New Zealand Volume IV: Naturalised Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Dicotyledons. Botany Division, D.S.I.R., Christchurch, New Zealand. (2)Klinkenberg, Brian. (Editor) 2007. E-Flora BC: Electronic Atlas of the Plants of British Columbia [www.eflora.bc.ca]. Lab for Advanced Spatial Analysis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. [Accessed 30 April 2008] (3)Webb, C. J. 1981. Checklist of dicotyledons naturalised in New Zealand 6. Araliaceae, Buxaceae, Cornaceae, Casuarinaceae, Celastrales, Euphorbiaceae, Linaceae, Malvaceae, Polygalaceae, Urticales. New Zealand Journal of Botany 19:45-51. (4)James, R. L. 1956. Introduced Plants in Northeast Tennessee. Castanea 21(2): 44-52. (6)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Euphorbia_lathyris.html [Accessed 03 March 2008]

3.02

Generally considered a disturbance weed with little or no evidence of serious ecological impacts. (1)Euphorbia lathyris Linnaeus, Caper Spurge, Myrtle Spurge, Mole Plant. Mt (NC, SC, VA), Pd (VA), Cp (VA): roadsides, disturbed areas; rare, introduced from Europe. (2)Introduced; native of Europe. Annual to perennial; cultivated as a garden ornamental, roadsides and disturbed areas; rare. (3)Invades coastal scrub, marshes, dunes; Sonoma, Marin cos.; threat to wildlands? (4)Here is what we heard: CALIFORNIA We've got two hardy populations of Euphorbia lathyris here at Bodega Marine Reserve and have begun control efforts in the last year by handpulling. We have had pretty decent results so far, but follow-up treatments will certainly be necessary. (5)Euphorbia lathyris is not invasive. (6)Established along the east coast and west coast of the US as well as in adjacent inland states and in Texas; establishment (or at least collecting) appears somewhat more frequent in the west, with records from a number of counties in Washington, Oregon, and California. Generally cited as an escape from cultivation found in various disturbed habitats; most reports from less heavily disturbed sites come from California, where it has been reported from coastal scrub, interior sage scrub, marshes and swamp borders, and dunes. However, even these areas, populations apparently are usually too small to have significant biodiversity impacts. Most concern about this species appears to stem from its rapid rate of local spread and/or high local abundance in some situations. Occasionally cultivated as an ornamental, particularly for its reputed ability to repel gophers and moles from gardens; generalized range appears to be expanding somewhat. Overall, information on the ecological behavior of this species was sparse, and it should be re-evaluated as additional information becomes available.

(1)Weakley, A. S. 2007. Flora of the Carolinas, Virginia, Georgia, and surrounding areas. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Chapel Hill, NC. (2)Darbyshire, S. J. 2003. Inventory of Canadian Agricultural Weeds. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Research Branch, Ottawa, Ontario. (3)http://www.cal-ipc.org/ip/inventory/pdf/Inventory1999.pdf [Accessed 03 March 2008] (4)http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/listarch/arch148.html [Accessed 03 March 2008] (5)Klinkenberg, Brian. (Editor) 2007. E-Flora BC: Electronic Atlas of the Plants of British Columbia [www.eflora.bc.ca]. Lab for Advanced Spatial Analysis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. [Accessed 30 April 2008] (6)NatureServe. 2008. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.0. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available http://www.natureserve.org/explorer. [Accessed 01 May 2008].

3.03

No evidence

3.04

(1)Most concern about this species appears to stem from its rapid rate of local spread and/or high local abundance in some situations (Fox 2004, Jordan 2006). In California, Fox (2004) notes that "populations in wildlands are usually not large enough to cause significant impacts." Although one source noted it to have a "competitor" (as opposed to a "ruderal" or "stress tolerator") life strategy (Milbau and Stout 2006), no reports of significant replacement of other species were found. In fact, Parsons and Cuthbertson (2001) noted that it is "highly sensitive to weed competition", and it was observed to be out-competed by Japanese knotweed at a site in Boston, MA (Rice 2006). Mammalian herbivores do appear to avoid the species, however (Fox 2004), which may have some effect on animal and plant community composition at invaded sites.

(1)NatureServe. 2008. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.0. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available http://www.natureserve.org/explorer. [Accessed 01 May 2008].

3.05

(1)Euphorbia esula L. leafy spurge. Noxious or banned weed in Hawaii and 21 other U.S. states.

(1)http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=EUES [Accessed 01 May 2008]

4.01

(1)Glabrous to glaucous succulent annual, biennial, perhaps perennial, to 1 m tall, simple or branching if disturbed

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Euphorbia_lathyris.html [Accessed 03 March 2008]

4.02

No evidence

4.03

No evidence

4.04

(1)A hardy annual, biennial or perennial, self-seeding and overwintering in Maryland, with great potential as a weed, ignored by grazing animals.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Euphorbia_lathyris.html [Accessed 03 March 2008]

4.05

(1)Known Organisms Affected: humans and livestock known to be affected by toxin in species...Mode of Action: toxin in species acts upon contact with skin or ingestion

(1)Klinkenberg, Brian. (Editor) 2007. E-Flora BC: Electronic Atlas of the Plants of British Columbia [www.eflora.bc.ca]. Lab for Advanced Spatial Analysis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. [Accessed 30 April 2008]

4.06

(1)When affected tissues were cultured on potato dextrose agar, they consistently gave rise to the sclerotial state of Macrophomina pahseolina, which has also caused disease of E. lathyris in Arizona. Macrophomina phaseolina is a serious pathogen of many crop species and partially depends on high temperature and water stress in its invasion of plant tissues. Indeed, in the Davis field plantings, disease symptoms appeared in early- to mid-summer, and were most severe in plants under varying degrees of water stress; well-irrigated plants showed no symptoms. The source of inoculum in these plots is not known, but the severe levels of disease observed in one plot suggest that the pathogen may have become established in the soil on some other crop previously grown at the site. However, M. phaseolina also is known to be seed-borne on many crops, and when diseased plants grown for seed at San Jose, California, were examined, the pathogen was detected in host tissues at least 50 cm above the soil line. Although the limited examination of E. lathyris seed failed to detect the pathogen either on or in seed or in seed debris, this question may warrant further investigation if E. lathyris becomes widely cultivated. Nematode or the genus Meloidogyne are reported. (2)Mildew and rust are the only major problems requiring control. In general disease and pests have not been a significant problem.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Euphorbia_lathyris.html [Accessed 03 March 2008] (2)http://safs.csl.gov.uk/docs/caper_spurge.pdf [Accessed 30 April 2008]

4.07

(1)According to Hager's Handbuch, human overdoses result in burning mouth, nausea, diarrhea, dilated pupils and collapse with pallor, rigidity, frigidity, cold sweats, arrhythmic pulse, vertigo, delirium, alternating hot and cold flashes, cramps, etc. (List and Horhammer, 1969–1979). The seeds are said to contain aesuletin, and an unnamed alkaloid and the seed oil is violent POISON. The plant has caused poisoning in children. Five California women are said to have pickled the fruits, believing them to be capers. Severe but not fatal poisoning ensued. (2)Caper spurge (Euphorbia lathyris) is an outdoor ornamental that has become naturalized in British Columbia. This plant contains an irritant toxin in the latex. Humans have been poisoned after ingesting the seed capsules, which resemble capers, a different plant. Goats apparently eat this plant without experiencing great problems, but the toxin can accumulate and can be passed through the milk (3)The sap of Euphorbia lathyrus (Caper Spurge) is highly irritating to skin and eyes. Hand removal should not be undertaken lightly, and requires suitable gloves and glasses, and perhaps barrier cream on exposed skin such as the face. Make sure to provide for washing if contact occurs. (4)Before maturity most plants contain an poisonous milky latex which contains carcinogenic compounds.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Euphorbia_lathyris.html [Accessed 03 March 2008] (2)http://www.cookiebabyinc.com/poisonousplants/caperspurge.html [Accessed 03 March 2008] (3)http://www.weeds.crc.org.au/cropweeds/crop_weeds_e.html#caper [Accessed 03 March 2008] (4)http://safs.csl.gov.uk/docs/caper_spurge.pdf [Accessed 30 April 2008]

4.08

Unknown, but potential may exist due to flammability of oil in seeds and latex (1)Seeds are said to yield a fine clear oil known as oil of Euphorbia, obtained by expression or by ether or alcohol extraction...The energy-promising latex contains 0.5% 3,4-dioxyphenylalanine.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Euphorbia_lathyris.html [Accessed 30 April 2008]

4.09

Unknown [most references refer to sun to light or partial shade] (1)t can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade (2)Sun Exposure: Light shade

(1)http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Euphorbia+lathyris [Accessed 03 March 2008] (2)http://www.desert-tropicals.com/Plants/Euphorbiaceae/Euphorbia_lathyris.html [Accessed 01 May 2008]

4.10

(1)Reported from the Mediterranean Center of Diversity, mole plant, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, frost, and poor soils. (2)Gopher weed grows in well drained, dry or moist soils, with partial shade to full sun in a wide variety of habitats. (3)Suitable soil types – Light, well drained, preferably alkaline soil. Best suited to low lying areas. (4)Among different soil types sand was best for the growth of E. lathyris (5)Habitat: Woods, avoiding acid soils

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Euphorbia_lathyris.html [Accessed 03 March 2008] (2)http://www.blm.gov/ca/st/en/fo/arcata/arcweeds/plants/Gopher_Weed.html [Accessed 03 March 2008] (3)http://safs.csl.gov.uk/docs/caper_spurge.pdf [Accessed 30 April 2008] (4)Garg, J. and A. Kumar. 1990. Improving the growth and hydrocarbon yield of Euphorbia lathyris L. in semi-arid regions of Rajasthan. In: Biomass for Energy and Industry Vol. I. (G. Grassi, G. Gosse and G. dos Santos, eds.) Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp. 1.527-1.531. (5)http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Euphorbia+lathyris [Accessed 01 May 2008]

4.11

(1)Glabrous to glaucous succulent annual, biennial, perhaps perennial, to 1 m tall, simple or branching if disturbed (coppices readily if top pinched)

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Euphorbia_lathyris.html [Accessed 30 April 2008]

4.12

(1) Most concern about this species appears to stem from its rapid rate of local spread and/or high local abundance in some situations (Fox 2004, Jordan 2006). In California, Fox (2004) notes that "populations in wildlands are usually not large enough to cause significant impacts." Although one source noted it to have a "competitor" (as opposed to a "ruderal" or "stress tolerator") life strategy (Milbau and Stout 2006), no reports of significant replacement of other species were found. In fact, Parsons and Cuthbertson (2001) noted that it is "highly sensitive to weed competition", and it was observed to be out-competed by Japanese knotweed at a site in Boston, MA (Rice 2006).

(1)NatureServe. 2008. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.0. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available http://www.natureserve.org/explorer. [Accessed 01 May 2008].

5.01

Terrestrial

5.02

Euphorbiaceae

5.03

Euphorbiaceae

5.04

Not a geophyte

6.01

No evidence

6.02

(1)Native of the Mediterranean, cultivated as medicinal or ornamental, escaping and self-seeding along the East and West coasts of the United States.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Euphorbia_lathyris.html [Accessed 03 March 2008]

6.03

(1)No evidence of hybridization with native Euphorbia species (Fox 2004), and no reports of disproportionate impacts on other natives were found.

(1)NatureServe. 2008. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.0. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available http://www.natureserve.org/explorer. [Accessed 01 May 2008].

6.04

(1)A hardy annual, biennial or perennial, self-seeding and overwintering in Maryland,

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Euphorbia_lathyris.html [Accessed 30 April 2008]

6.05

(1)The flowers are monoecious (individual flowers are either male or female, but both sexes can be found on the same plant) and are pollinated by Flies. (2)Flowers are pollinated by flies

(1)http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Euphorbia+lathyris [Accessed 03 March 2008] (2)http://safs.csl.gov.uk/docs/caper_spurge.pdf [Accessed 30 April 2008]

6.06

(1)Reproduction is by seed only

(1)NatureServe. 2008. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.0. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available http://www.natureserve.org/explorer. [Accessed 01 May 2008].

6.07

(1)A hardy annual, biennial or perennial (2)Stout, erect, hollow stem in the first year. Elongated with flowers in the second year, grows up to 120cm tall.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Euphorbia_lathyris.html [Accessed 30 April 2008] (2)http://safs.csl.gov.uk/docs/caper_spurge.pdf [Accessed 30 April 2008]

7.01

(1)The colony of 30+ plants turned out to be Euphorbia lathyris (E. lathyrus L., an orthographic variant), a non-native annual/biennial from the Mediterranean region with invasive qualities and currently quite uncommon in the Torrey Range. The plants were probably recently introduced to the site with illegally dumped landscape clippings.

(1)Lamont, E. E. and S. M. Young. 2006. Noteworthy plants reported from the Torrey Range—2004 and 2005. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 133(4): 648–659.

7.02

(1)Also occasionally cultivated as an ornamental (O'Kennon 1991), especially as the plant is reputed to repel gophers and moles; for sale in nurseries and on the internet

(1)NatureServe. 2008. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.0. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available http://www.natureserve.org/explorer. [Accessed 01 May 2008].

7.03

No evidence [species grown for biofuel evaluation with no evidence that seeds contaminated produce]

7.04

(1)Individual flowers are small and petal-less but additional flowers are produced from within the bracts of the earliest flowers, this pattern may be repeated several times. One seed is found in each of three chambers on the seed capsule. The capsule bursts open when ripe, scattering the seeds and making an audible pop.The seeds are about 5mm in size, brown and reticulate. [Seed dispersed short distances, but too large for long distance dispersal by wind]

(1)http://safs.csl.gov.uk/docs/caper_spurge.pdf [Accessed 30 April 2008]

7.05

(1)Natural dispersal is ballistic, with seeds thrown several meters when ripe fruits burst open (Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001); also disperses occasionally by water (Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001, Fox 2004).

(1)NatureServe. 2008. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.0. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available http://www.natureserve.org/explorer. [Accessed 01 May 2008].

7.06

(1)Individual flowers are small and petal-less but additional flowers are produced from within the bracts of the earliest flowers, this pattern may be repeated several times. One seed is found in each of three chambers on the seed capsule. The capsule bursts open when ripe, scattering the seeds and making an audible pop.The seeds are about 5mm in size, brown and reticulate. [Seed dispersed short distances, but too large for long distance dispersal by wind]

(1)http://safs.csl.gov.uk/docs/caper_spurge.pdf [Accessed 30 April 2008]

7.07

(1)Naturalized species with seeds or seedlike fruit bearing elaiosomes...Euphorbia lathyris L. possesses a caruncle [A caruncle is a fleshy outgrowth from the integument that could aid in dispersal of seeds by ants]

(1)Pemberton, R. W. and D. W. Irving. 1990. Elaiosomes on Weed Seeds and the Potential for Myrmecochory. Weed Science 38: 615-619.

7.08

Not adapted for consumption and internal dispersal (1)Naturalized species with seeds or seedlike fruit bearing elaiosomes...Euphorbia lathyris L. possesses a caruncle [A caruncle is a fleshy outgrowth from the integument that could aid in dispersal of seeds by ants]

(1)Pemberton, R. W. and D. W. Irving. 1990. Elaiosomes on Weed Seeds and the Potential for Myrmecochory. Weed Science 38: 615-619.

8.01

(1)Herbs, annual, erect, up to 1(-1.5) m tall [Plants of this size would not produce such high seed densities with the possibility of high density cultivation]

(1)http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200012568 [Accessed 01 May 2008]

8.02

(1)"Seed remains viable in the soil for at least one year, likely longer "

(1)Lamont, E. E. and S. M. Young. 2006. Noteworthy plants reported from the Torrey Range - 2004 and 2005. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 133(4): 648-659.

8.03

(1)This species is also susceptible to a range of herbicides (Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001), including glyphosate (2 - 3%) (Jordan 2006)

(1)NatureServe. 2008. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.0. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available http://www.natureserve.org/explorer. [Accessed 01 May 2008].

8.04

(1)simple or branching if disturbed (coppices readily if top pinched) (2)Plants resprout readily when cut

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Euphorbia_lathyris.html [Accessed 03 March 2008] (2)NatureServe. 2008. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.0. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available http://www.natureserve.org/explorer. [Accessed 01 May 2008].

8.05

Unknown