Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Eucalyptus grandis; rose gum

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

1

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

y

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

y

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

3

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

11

Source

Notes

1.01

no evidence

1.02

World Rainforest Movement. South Africa: The alien tree species threat to grassland biodiversity.
Webpage available at: <http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/44/SouthAfrica.html>

" In effect, several species of Acacia, as well as Eucalyptus grandis, Eucalyptus saligna, Pinus elliottii, Pinus taeda, Pinus pinaster, Pinus patula, and Pinus radiata, among others, have been included in "Category 2: plants that are useful for commercial plant production purposes but are proven plant invaders under uncontrolled conditions outside demarcated areas." The new norm also establishes compulsory steps to be undertaken in order to erradicate them."

1.03

no evidence

2.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"Review of natural distribution: The southerly limit of E. grandis is near Newcastle in New South Wales (32.2 S). Its distribution then stretches northwards almost continuously in the coastal regions and subcoastal ranges until just east of Gympie (26.1 S) in south eastern Queensland. Further northwards (from approximately 18S) it occurs in disjunct populations with the main ones being: on the Eungella Tableland west of Mackay; near Ingham; on the Atherton Tableland; and at the northern extreme of its range on the Windsor Tableland west of Daintree (approximately 16S) (Brooker and Kleinig, 1994; Eldridge et al., 1993). Where it occurs in northern New South Wales and southern Queensland, natural stands do not extend further than 100 km inland from the sea and occur over an altitudinal range from sea level to around 600 m. The more northerly occurrences in Queensland cover an altitudinal range from 400 to 1250 m and one population occurs approximately 450 km inland at Carnarvon (at approximately 25S) (Eldridge

2.02

2.03

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

The species occurs naturally along the east coast of Australia in sub-tropical to tropical areas where the climate is mostly warm and humid. The climatic indicators from this range in Australia are: mean maximum temperature of the hottest month 24-32C; mean minimum temperature of the coldest month 3-17C; mean annual temperature 14-22C; mean annual rainfall 690-2480 mm (Boland et al., 1984; Booth et al., 1988). The rainfall distribution varies from a uniform/bimodal to a summer maximum in the north, with a dry season of 0-5 months each year. When planted as an exotic E. grandis has the plasticity to grow well under a wide range of conditions in new and different environments and it is widely planted in sub-tropical and warm temperate climates (Zobel et al., 1987 ). Its environmental amplitude significantly exceeds that suggested by its natural habitat (Booth and Pryor, 1991). For best performance though, E. grandis requires a sub-tropical or warmer temperate climate with rainfall above 900 mm (Poynton, 1979;

2.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"Review of natural distribution: The southerly limit of E. grandis is near Newcastle in New South Wales (32.2 S). Its distribution then stretches northwards almost continuously in the coastal regions and subcoastal ranges until just east of Gympie (26.1 S) in south eastern Queensland. Further northwards (from approximately 18S) it occurs in disjunct populations with the main ones being: on the Eungella Tableland west of Mackay; near Ingham; on the Atherton Tableland; and at the northern extreme of its range on the Windsor Tableland west of Daintree (approximately 16S) (Brooker and Kleinig, 1994; Eldridge et al., 1993). Where it occurs in northern New South Wales and southern Queensland, natural stands do not extend further than 100 km inland from the sea and occur over an altitudinal range from sea level to around 600 m. The more northerly occurrences in Queensland cover an altitudinal range from 400 to 1250 m and one population occurs approximately 450 km inland at Carnarvon (at approximately 25S) (Eldridge

2.05

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Location of introductions: The greatest area of plantations of E. grandis and its hybrids with other species are those established in Brazil, and several other Central and South American countries contain major plantation areas. It has been planted extensively in India, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Uganda and Sri Lanka. Smaller areas of plantations have also been grown in three states of the United States of America, namely California, Florida and Hawaii.

3.01

(1)http://www.treepower.org/papers/co2.html (2)http://www.kznwildlife.com/mngt_alienp.htm

(1)Eucalyptus Grandis, the fastest growing energywood species in Florida, is not invasive. It has been commercially planted since the 1960's at low density (600 trees/acre) in rotations of 8-12 years on approximately 15,000 acres in Florida with any record of escape.[NOT naturalized in Florida] (2) Naturalized weed in South Afirca

3.02

no evidence

3.03

no evidence

3.04

(1)World Rainforest Movement. South Africa: The alien tree species threat to grassland biodiversity.
Webpage available at: <http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/44/SouthAfrica.html> (2)http://www.kznwildlife.com/mngt_alienp.htm

(1)" In effect, several species of Acacia, as well as Eucalyptus grandis, Eucalyptus saligna, Pinus elliottii, Pinus taeda, Pinus pinaster, Pinus patula, and Pinus radiata, among others, have been included in "Category 2: plants that are useful for commercial plant production purposes but are proven plant invaders under uncontrolled conditions outside demarcated areas." The new norm also establishes compulsory steps to be undertaken in order to erradicate them." (2)described as invasive in KwaZulu-Natal (S. Africa)

3.05

4.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

no description of these tarits

4.02

Schumann, A. W.; Little, K. M.; Eccles, N. S. (1995) Suppression of seed germination and early seedling growth by plantation harvest residues. South African Journal of Plant and Soil, 1995, Vol.12, No.4, pp.170-172, 4 ref.

AB: "The role of forestry plantation residues (leaf and branch) in suppressing the establishment of four weed species (Conyza sumatrensis, Trifolium spp., Echinochloa utilis and Lactica sativa [Lactuca sativa ; lettuces?]) was investigated under greenhouse conditions. Of the three residue types used, Pinus patula residues were found to have the greatest suppressive effects, followed by Eucalyptus grandis and then Acacia mearnsii . " [lab only]

4.03

no evidence

4.04

USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

Plant characteristics\ Palatable Browse Animal: Low

4.05

no evidence

4.06

Castro, H. A. de; Krügner, T. L.; Ideriha, C. H. F.; Cappello, M. S. C.; Marchi, A. B. (1983) Cross inoculation of Eucalyptus, Psidium guajava and Syzygium jambos with Puccinia psidii. [FT: Inoculação cruzada de Eucalyptus, goiaba (Psidium guajava ) e jambeiro (Syzygium jambos ) com Puccinia psidii.] Fitopatologia Brasileira, 1983, Vol.8, No.3, pp.491-497, 11 ref.

AB: Seedlings of E. grandis and E. cloeziana, guava and S. jambos were inoculated with P. psidii isolates from these hosts. Evaluation of rust incidence, latent period, and frequency and intensity of infection showed that each sp. was attacked by isolates from the others, though some degree of specificity was noted in all the parameters.

4.07

no evidence

4.08

possibly, in association with litter and debris

4.09

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"Eucalyptus grandis is a light demanding, shade intolerant species which responds well to heavy thinning (Jacobs, 1981)."

4.1

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Soil and physiography: Natural stands of E. grandis occur on flats or lower slopes of deep, fertile valleys, commonly on the fringes of, or sometimes within, rainforest stands (Boland et al., 1984). It can also occupy upper slopes and ridgetop sites (Eldridge et al., 1993). It prefers moist, well drained, deep, loamy soils of alluvial or volcanic origin although it can tolerate poorer skeletal soils if rainfall is adequate (Streets, 1962). However, it can not tolerate excessively moist or poorly drained soils or extended periods of soil waterlogging (Turnbull and Pryor, 1984). It can tolerate periods of drought but generally it is not suitable for sites on dry, stony, skeletal soils or those that are exposed with relatively little soil depth.The species is classed as moderately tolerant of soil salinity. Though significant growth reductions have been reported in soils with salinities as low as Ec (electrical conductivity) of 1.0 to 1.5 dS/m (Dunn et al., 1994) it is not until Ec exceeds 5 dS/m that appreci

4.11

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"In its natural habitat, E. grandis is a medium sized to very tall tree, 45-55 m (-75 m) high"

4.12

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"The species is often found growing as pure stands of tall open forest with an understorey of rainforest species. Where stands are not pure, associated eucalypt species can include E. dunnii, E. microcorys, E. pellita, E. pilularis, E. resinifera, E. robusta, E. saligna or E. tereticornis."

5.01

terrestrial

5.02

tree; Myrtaceae

5.03

no evidence

5.04

tree

6.01

no evidence

6.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"Eucalyptus grandis is most commonly propagated from seed."

6.03

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

E. grandis belongs to Euclayptus subgenus Symphyomyrtus (Pryor and Johnson, 1971) and is closely related to E. saligna, with which it was included until it was described as a distinct species in 1918 by Maiden (1918) (Burgess, 1983). Another close relative is E. deanei. There are no recorded natural hybrids of E. grandis and E. saligna from within their natural distributions, although spontaneous hybrids have been reported from plantations in South Africa and Florida (Griffin et al., 1988). Hybrids have also been reported between E. grandis and a number of other species, both by chance through open pollinations and intentionally through controlled pollinations (Eldridge et al., 1993). E. grandis hybrids are discussed in greater detail below.
The valves of E. grandis capsules are more incurved and broader than the thin, strongly erect or recurved valves of E. saligna capsules. The fruits of E. grandis are often glaucous, whereas those of E. saligna are not. E. deanei is separated from E. grandis and E. salign

6.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"Barriers to self-pollination have been found to exist in E. grandis. Although there seems to be no incompatibility on the stigma with self pollen, fertilisation seems to favour outcrossing when both self and cross pollen are applied in mixture to the one stigma (Hodgson, 1976a). This is possibly due to inhibition of the growth of the tubes of self pollen in the stigma. Despite such barriers, the species is known to be self fertile (Hodgson, 1976b) and, like most eucalypts, can be considered to have a mixed mating system.In natural stands of E. grandis, inbreeding to various degrees can be a common occurrence, both through selfing and through mating between neighbouring close relatives "

6.05

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Pollination is effected primarily by insects and although pollen once deposited on the stigma generally germinates rapidly, some may remain on the stigma for up to two or three days before it germinates (Hodgson LM, 1976. Some aspects of flowering and reproductive behaviour in Eucalyptus grandis (Hill) Maiden at J.D.M. Keet Forest Research Station (formerly Zomerkomst Forest Research Station). 1. Flowering, controlled pollination methods, pollination and receptivity. South African Forestry Journal, No. 97: 18-28; 22 ref.).

6.06

no evidence

6.07

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Reproductive behaviour: E. grandis typically flowers within 2-3 years after seed germination (Hodgson LM, 1976. Some aspects of flowering and reproductive behaviour in Eucalyptus grandis (Hill) Maiden at J.D.M. Keet Forest Research Station (formerly Zomerkomst Forest Research Station). 1. Flowering, controlled pollination methods, pollination and receptivity. South African Forestry Journal, No. 97: 18-28; 22 ref.; Burgess IP, 1983. The natural occurrence of Eucalyptus grandis, its distribution patterns in natural forests, its characteristics and conservation. Silvicultura, St. Paulo, 31:397-399.) though occasional individuals can flower from as young as 6 months from seed (Zobel BJ, Van Wyk G, Stahl P, 1987. Growing exotic forests. New York, USA; Wiley Interscience. xx + 508pp.; 73 pp. of ref.).

7.01

no evidence

7.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Location of introductions: The greatest area of plantations of E. grandis and its hybrids with other species are those established in Brazil, and several other Central and South American countries contain major plantation areas. It has been planted extensively in India, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Uganda and Sri Lanka. Smaller areas of plantations have also been grown in three states of the United States of America, namely California, Florida and Hawaii.

7.03

no evidence

7.04

Cremer, K. W. (1977) Distance of seed dispersal in eucalypts estimated from seed weights. Australian Forest Research, 1977, Vol.7, No.4, pp.225-228, 5 ref.

AB: Measurements of wt. and terminal velocity (Vt) of viable seeds of 15 eucalypt species were used to construct an equation relating Vt to wt. for other eucalypt species with wingless seeds. Vt can be used to estimate seed dispersal distance on level terrain for specified wind speeds and ht. of release. Twelve of the 15 species had seed dispersal distances of less than 30 m for a wind speed of 10 km/h and release ht. of 40 m.

7.05

no evidence

7.06

no evidence

7.07

no evidence

7.08

no evidence of ingestion

8.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

The number of viable seeds per kg of E. grandis is 652,000+44,000(S.D.) per kg [very samll seeds]

8.02

(1)Nakagawa, J.; Mori, E. S.; Amaral, W. A. N. do; Mello, E. J. de (2001) Seed ageing of Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden classified by size. [FT: Envelhecimento acelerado em sementes de Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden classificadas por tamanho.] Scientia Forestalis, 2001, No.60, pp.99-108, 22 ref. (2)http://www2.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/RM-4.pdf

(1) "It was concluded that both seed sizes reached 30% of moisture content under 72 h of aging conditions and showed significant germination losses when compared with seeds without aging (control). "
[viabiity loss after ageing treatment] (2)Lacks recalcitrant seeds

8.03

no evdience

8.04

http://www.sabie.co.za/about/forestry/

The harvested tree stump will coppice (re-sprout) to form second and more crops (rotations).

8.05

no evdience