Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Erythrina variegata (E. indica);coral tree

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

n

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

n

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

y

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

y

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

4

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

-2

Source

Notes

1.01

no evidence

1.02

no evidence

1.03

no evidence

2.01

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://pppis.fao.org/

(1)Review of natural distribution
E. variegata is native to the coastal forests from East Africa, the Indian Oceans, from India in the west coast from Bombay to Malabar and Sunderbans, throughout South-East Asia, through the Pacific Islands, the Northern Territory and Queensland (Australia) (Faridah-Hanum and van der Maesen, 1997). It is believed that E. variegata originated in New Caledonia as a beach species. However, this species has been cultivated for such a long period in the tropics, that its original distribution is difficult to define.
Natural latitude range
Approximate limits north to south: 21°N to 24°S
Vegetation types: coastal plant communities; deciduous forests; moist forests; secondary forests; swamps
(2)native of coastal forests in Southeast Asia. It is widely distributed along seashores and sandy beaches in the Philippines.

2.02

2.03

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.floridata.com/ref/E/eryt_var.cfm (3)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ST238 (4)http://pppis.fao.org/ (5)http://www.ecoport.org/EP.exe$EntPage?ID=1012

[this species is primarily a coastal plant in its native habitat however it has been successfully planted outside this habitat. Elevational limit varies depending on reference, often less than 1000m. USDA zones are narrow, suggesting narrow environmental tolerance.] Natural latitude range: Approximate limits north to south: 21°N to 24°S
Climate
E. variegata occurs frequently over a wide altitudinal range, from the lowlands and up to an altitude of 1600 m. The optimal growth occurs in areas where the mean annual rainfall exceeds 1200 mm; however, it will grow in regions with a mean annual rainfall much lower than this. The mean annual temperature is approximately 20°C, mean maximum temperature of the hottest month 32°C, and mean minimum temperature of the coldest month 18°C (Faridah-Hanum and van der Maesen, 1997).
- Altitude range: 0 - 1900 m
- Mean annual rainfall: 1200 - 2500 mm
- Rainfall regime: uniform
- Dry season duration: 0 - 0 months
- Mean annual temperature: 20 - 32ºC
- Mean maximum tem

2.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Review of natural distribution
E. variegata is native to the coastal forests from East Africa, the Indian Oceans, from India in the west coast from Bombay to Malabar and Sunderbans, throughout South-East Asia, through the Pacific Islands, the Northern Territory and Queensland (Australia) (Faridah-Hanum and van der Maesen, 1997). It is believed that E. variegata originated in New Caledonia as a beach species. However, this species has been cultivated for such a long period in the tropics, that its original distribution is difficult to define.
Natural latitude range
Approximate limits north to south: 21°N to 24°S
Vegetation types: coastal plant communities; deciduous forests; moist forests; secondary forests; swampsList of countries with natural populations
Asia: Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, [China] Taiwan, [India], Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Indonesia, Laos, [Malaysia] Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak, Myanm

2.05

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

List of countries where planted
Asia: Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, [India] Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Indonesia, [Malaysia] Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam
Africa: Ethiopia, Nigeria
Oceania: Australia, Australian Northern Territory, Queensland, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands

3.01

no evidence

3.02

no evidence

3.03

no evidence

3.04

no evidence

3.05

Sainty, G. (1995) Streambank weeds. Better planning for better weed management. Proceedings of the 8th biennial noxious weeds conference, Goulburn, NSW, Australia, 19-21 September 1995: volume 1., 1995, pp.85-86

AB: The control of streambank weeds in Australia is reviewed. Topics discussed include: the need to control exotic plants; problems of erosion as a consequence; a case study example of Salix spp. on the Nambucca River, New South Wales; problems caused by invasion of camphor laurel [Cinnamomum camphora ], Gleditsia tri[a]canthos, Erythrina crista-galli, Tamarix aphylla and Rubus discolor ; and an outline of management methods.

4.01

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ST238

[depends on variety] (1)Botanical features: "E. variegata is a deciduous tree up to 30 m in height with a d.b.h. of 20-75 cm. The bole is fluted with a much branched crown (Whitmore, 1972; Faridah-Hanum and van der Maesen, 1997). Bole and branches with short woody spines. " (2)Trunk/bark/branches: branches:no thorns (Erythrina variegata var. orientalis)

4.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
Hedge NG, 1993. Cultivation and uses of Erythrina variegata in Western India. In: Westley SB, Powell MH, eds. Erythrina in the New and Old Worlds. Paia, Hawaii: NFTA, 77-84.

" E. variegata is a suitable nurse crop, due to their fast growth rate, their ability to improve the microclimate and reduced weed growth. When intercropped with cacao (Theobroma cacao) and coffee (Coffea) plantations in India, a spacing of 8-10 m is used, while a spacing of 2-3 m is used for live stakes in pepper (Piper nigrum), betel (Piper betel) (Hedge, 1993). The following fodder yields have been reported: 15-50 kg/year when used as support for betel; and 100 kg/year when planted as a shade tree for coffee."

4.03

no evidence

4.04

(1)USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA. (2)http://www.agroforester.com/overstory/overstory91.html

(1)"Palatable Browse Animal: Low
Palatable Graze Animal: Low" (2)An important fodder tree

4.05

no evidence

4.06

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/Type/othreis.htm

(1)"E. variegata is a potential host to a few moth and beetle species and their predators, such as the fruit piercing moth Othreis fullonia, carob moth and hibiscus snowscale. Mites, powdery mildew and mealy bugs are also damaging to the tree."; " E. variegata is favoured by the fruit piercing moth (Othreis fullonia), carob moth (Ectomyelois ceratoniae) and the hibiscus snow scale (Pinnaspis strachani). In India larvae of the beetle Raphipodus damage the roots. In Hawaii, this species is known to be attacked by Chinese rose beetle (Adoretus sinicus), powdery mildew (Oidium sp.), mites (Tetranychus cinnabaricus and Polyphagotarsonemus latus) and mealy bugs (Phenacoccus spp.) (Faridah-Hanum and Van der Maesen, 1997). " (2)Othreis fullonia -- Damage caused by this pest is not only a result of the direct feeding of this moth but also by the fungal and bacterial infections thatdevelop at the wound site. This moth is a known vector of Oospora citri, a fungus that rots the fruit and has a penetrating odor

4.07

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.fau.edu/divdept/science/envsci/poison-pl.html

(1)The bark and leaves are widely used in remedies in many South-East Asian countries, in order to treat dysentery, intermittent fevers, asthma, coughs and liver problems (Burkill, 1966). This species contains the following secondary compounds, hypaphorine, erysodine, erysopine, erythrinine, saponins, and hydrocyanic acid. The leaves have low concentrations of alkaloids, narcotic properties, and boiled leaves are also eaten as a pot-herb. In India, the root and bark form the basis of an Ayurvedic drug, 'paribhadra' (Mitra and Srivastava, 1985). Less common uses include the bark for cordage (Burkill, 1966). The raw seeds are poisonous but may be eaten after boiling or roasting, and are used to treat cancer and abscesses in Indo-China, or to treat snake bites in Malaysia (Faridah-Hanum and Van der Maesen, 1997). (2)Seeds poison [but not eaten]

4.08

no evidence

4.09

USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

Shade Tolerance: Intolerant

4.1

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
Sen R, 1993. Utilization of legume-Rhizobium associations. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany, 17(2):333-337; 13 ref. (2)http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ST238

"Soil and physiography
E. variegata grows on a variety of soils from sandy loam to gravels. This species tolerates seasonally waterlogged soils. It is also often found on saline, tropical, clayey and coral limestone soils (Faridah-Hanum and Van der Maesen, 1997). For example on the Islands of Langkawi and Tioman (Malaysia) E. variegata grows well on limestone soils, and also grows on sandy beaches in other regions of Malaysia.|
Descriptors
- Soil texture: light; medium
- Soil drainage: free; seasonally waterlogged
- Soil reaction: acid
- Special soil tolerances: infertile
- Soil types: saline soils; sandy soils; tropical soils; clay soils" (2)clay; sand; loam; alkaline; acidic; well-drained

4.11

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

erect tree

4.12

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Vegetation types: coastal plant communities; deciduous forests; moist forests; secondary forests; swamps

5.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

terrestrial

5.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

tree; Fabaceae

5.03

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
Sen R, 1993. Utilization of legume-Rhizobium associations. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany, 17(2):333-337; 13 ref.

"The roots form nodules in association with Bradyrhizobium bacteria, it is therefore a nitrogen-fixing tree (Sen, 1993)."

5.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

tree

6.01

no evidence

6.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Propagation by seeds is also possible, but is seldom practiced, due to the high success rate of propagation from cuttings. Seeds are obtained from ripened pods, sown 10-15 cm apart in nursery beds, and watered regularly. Seeds germinate in 8-10 days, and seedlings grow to a transplantable height of 30-50 cm after 8-10 weeks. Seedlings are normally planted at a spacing of 3-5 m apart in the field. Generally, seedlings grow into established adults in 8-10 years and reach a height of 15-20 m. E. variegata may be coppiced or pollarded once a year during the rainy season.

6.03

no evidence

6.04

no evidence

6.05

(1) AB: The effect on reproductive behaviour was studied of the presence of a pair of three-striped squirrels (Funambulus palmarum ) found nesting in an E. indica tree in December 1987. The tree was isolated by cutting down the 3 others originally present (in a row of 4). Flowering began in January 1988 (by which time there were 5 squirrels, including offspring) and ceased in March 1988. Only 10 of the 12 bird species reported to have visited the tree in 1987 visited it in 1988. The squirrels damaged the flowers and inflorescences while looking for caterpillars, and also (with crows) opened the fruits. Data are tabulated on fruit production and seed distribution per fruit, and in comparison with data for 1987 published earlier, indicate increased flowering and fruiting capacity and seed production, which is attributed to squirrel activity. It is suggested that the occurrence of multi-seeded fruits (7-11 seeds per fruit) may also be due to the squirrels and caused by abundant pollen delivery over the inflores

6.06

no evidence

6.07

http://www.floridata.com/ref/E/eryt_var.cfm

seedlings may flower in as little as 3-4 years [requires several months more for seeds to mature]

7.01

no evidence

7.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

List of countries where planted
Asia: Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, [India] Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Indonesia, [Malaysia] Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam
Africa: Ethiopia, Nigeria
Oceania: Australia, Australian Northern Territory, Queensland, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands

7.03

no evidence

7.04

no evidence

7.05

Carquist S. (1980) Hawaii: A Natural History. Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden. Lawai, Hawaii USA

p. 169: "The seeds do not float (E. sandwicensis), although seeds of non-Hawaiian erythrinas can, as shown by seeds of E. variegata " [but not typically a riverbank plant]

7.06

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ST238

Fruit characteristics: does not attract wildlife

7.07

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ST239

Fruit characteristics: does not attract wildlife

7.08

no evidence

8.01

Wesley, H. D. (1987) Bird activity and seed productivity in the coral tree, Erythrina indica. Indian Forester, 1987, Vol.113, No.9, pp.640-647, 4 ref.

AB: The activities of birds in relation to their efficiency as pollinators was observed for 4 days on 4 trees in flower in Tamil Nadu in Jan. 1985. Before the observations were made, the total number of inflorescences on the trees was counted; the number of flowers was estimated from a sample of 30 inflorescences. In March 1985, counts were made of inflorescences with fruits, of fruits per inflorescence and of seeds per fruit. The total number of inflorescences was 384 and flowers 24603. Only 731 seeds (2.97%) were produced.

8.02

http://www.shaman-australis.com/Website/Erythrinaspecies.htm

Seeds need scarification to germinate.

8.03

no evidence

8.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

E. variegata may be coppiced or pollarded once a year during the rainy season.

8.05

no evidence