Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Enterolobium cyclocarpum (syn. Inga cyclocarpa (Jacq.) Willd. Mimosa cyclocarpa ); monkeysoap, ear tree

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

y

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

n

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

y

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

15

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

y

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

3

Source

Notes

1.01

no evidence

1.02

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?monkeysoap (22 October 2003)

Distributional range:
Native:
Northern America: Mexico
Southern America: Brazil - Roraima; Central America; Colombia [possibly]; Venezuela
Other: naturalized in West Indies

1.03

no evidence

2.01

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?monkeysoap (22 October 2003)

Distributional range:
Native:
Northern America: Mexico
Southern America: Brazil - Roraima; Central America; Colombia [possibly]; Venezuela
Other: naturalized in West Indies

2.02

2.03

(1)CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)http://www.winrock.org/forestry/factpub/FACTSH/Enterolob.html

(1) E. cyclocarpum is native to the seasonally dry, tropical forest formation and becomes less frequent progressing from deciduous to evergreen wet forest, where it occurs rarely and then only on disturbed sites such as river banks (Janzen, 1983). Throughout most of the native range, annual rainfall varies between 750 and 2500 mm with a 3- to 6-month dry season (Francis, 1988; Stewart et al., 1992). It is a truly tropical species and intolerant of frosts. Within the native range in Central America, it is very abundant at low elevations on the Pacific coastal plains but rarely found above 1000 m.
Descriptors
- Altitude range: 0 - 1200 m
- Mean annual rainfall: 750 - 2500 mm
- Rainfall regime: summer; bimodal
- Dry season duration: 3 - 6 months
- Mean annual temperature: 23 - 28C
- Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 34 - 41C
- Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 14 - 20C
- Absolute minimum temperature: > 0C (2)It becomes a climax tree only in the dry forest, being restricted to

2.04

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?monkeysoap (22 October 2003)

Distributional range:
Native:
Northern America: Mexico
Southern America: Brazil - Roraima; Central America; Colombia [possibly]; Venezuela
Other: naturalized in West Indies

2.05

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Location of introductions
Although E. cyclocarpum is generally considered to have been introduced throughout the tropics mainly as a roadside or garden tree, it is apparently little known or used outside its native range and has never been planted on a large scale, although it has been tested in plantations in Puerto Rico (Little et al., 1974; Francis, 1988), Hawaii (Austin et al., 1997), Ghana (Streets, 1962) and sporadically elsewhere. The history of introductions remains poorly documented and it is unclear exactly how widely distributed this species is, at least in Africa and Asia. It is without doubt widespread and common throughout the Caribbean. Lock (1989) records it only from Ghana and Sierra Leone in Africa and Brenan (1959, 1970) does not record it as present in either Flora of East Tropical Africa nor Flora Zambesiaca, nor Keay (1989) from Nigeria, suggesting that its historical introduction in Africa was limited to parts of West Africa, or that it is rare elsewhere. Similarly, Nielsen (1992), wh

3.01

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?monkeysoap (22 October 2003)

naturalized in West Indies

3.02

no evidence

3.03

no evidence

3.04

(1) http://www.co.collier.fl.us/natresources/exotics/other%20exotics.htm (2) http://www.hear.org/pier/prospective.htm

(1) on a list of "Nusiance Plants" [NOT ON FLEPPC LIST] (2) on the list of "Prospective Invasive Species for Pacific Islands " (Have been found on some Pacific islands and appear to be exhibiting invasive characteristics in wildland ecosystems. Are known to be invasive in similar ecosystems elsewhere in the world and could potentially be a problem on Pacific islands. ) [NO CONCRETE EVIDENCE THAT THIS SPECIES IS A PROBLEM IN NATURAL AREAS ANYWHERE IN THE WORLD]

3.05

no evidence

4.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

no description of these traits

4.02

(1) Chacko, K. C.; Pillai, P. K. C. (1997) Storage and hot-water treatments enhance germination of guanacaste (Enterolobium cyclocarpum ) seeds. International Tree Crops Journal, 1997, Vol.9, No.2, pp.103-107, 7 ref.
(2) Kamara, A. Y. (1998) Investigations into the effects of some selected multipurpose trees on weeds and growth of maize (Zea mays (L.)) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.)) in South-Western Nigeria. Tropenlandwirt, Beiheft, 1998, No.65, 143 pp.

(1)AB: "When the solution (leachate) obtained after hot water treatment was used for soaking paddy (Oryza sativa ) seeds, germination was delayed, although the cumulative final germination was unaffected. "
(2) "The seed bank was lower in Enterolobium cyclocarpum fallows than in the other tree stands at both 0-5 and 5-10 cm soil depth, while Nauclea latifolia and Terminalia superba stands had the highest seed banks. There was no correlation between light transmission and seed bank, suggesting other factors than shade were responsible for the differences in seed bank. Seed bank composition of dominant species was similar between tree stands. After 5 years, only E. cyclocarpum showed potential to reduce the weed seed bank. "

4.03

no evidence

4.04

(1) Carranza-Montaño, M. A.; Sánchez-Velásquez, L. R.; Pineda-López, M. del R.; Cuevas-Guzmán, R. (2003) Forage quality and potential of species from the Sierra de Manantlán (México) tropical dry forest. Agrociencia (Montecillo), 2003, Vol.37, No.2, pp.203-210, 16 ref.
(2) Pinto, R.; Ramírez, L.; KúVera, J. C.; Ortega, L. (2002) Forage tree and herbaceous species from the southeast of Mexico. [FT: Especies arbóreas y herbaceas forrajeras del sureste de México.] Pastos y Forrajes, 2002, Vol.25, No.3, pp.171-180, 20 ref.
(3) Ezenwa, I. (1998) Effects of cutting interval on the feed value of Enterolobium cyclocarpum . Nigerian Journal of Animal Production, 1998, Vol.25, No.1/2, pp.176-179, 17 ref.

(1) AB: "We studied forage quality and potential production for nineteen plant species (Chloris gayana, Andropogon gayanus, Panicum maximum, Verbesina greenmanii, Viguiera dentata, Guazuma ulmifolia , Compositae sp., Brosimum alicastrum, Sideroxylon capiri, Prosopis laevigata, Leucaena esculenta, Enterolobium cyclocarpum, Acacia macilenta, A. farnesiana, Coursetia caribaea, A. riparia, A. cochliacantha, Albizia tomentosa and Pithecellobium dulce ) in five tropical dry forest and three grassland sites at ejido [common land] 'Zenzontla', Sierra de Manantlán Biosphere Reserve (México). All sites are grazed by livestock of the ejido peasants. The nineteen species (herbs, shrubs and trees) were identified as being used as forage and were each evaluated for dry weight and chemical composition. "
(2) AB: After interviews with producers, 14 woody and seven herbaceous species widely used for forage were identified as well as their numerous uses. Enterolobium cyclocarpum fruit had the highest CP, dry matter (DM) and

4.05

(1) CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.Identification and typing of potentially poisonous plants of the southern Pacific coast of Guatemala. Toxicity of fruits of the tree
(2) Sobalvarro, A. A. (1990) Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Mimosaceae) for ruminants and laboratory animals. [FT: Identifizierung und Typisierung von potentiellen Giftpflanzen an der Südküstenregion Guatemalas (Pazifik). Untersuchungen zur toxischen Wirkung der Früchte von Conacaste (Enterolobium cyclocarpum , Mimosaceae) auf Wiederkäuer sowie Laboratoriumstiere.] Identifizierung und Typisierung von potentiellen Giftpflanzen an der Südküstenregion Guatemalas (Pazifik). Untersuchungen zur toxischen Wirkung der Früchte von Conacaste (Enterolobium cyclocarpum , Mimosaceae) auf Wiederkäuer sowie Laboratoriumstiere., 1990, 149 pp., 154 ref.

(1) "a high-quality dry season fodder from the pods"; "The dust from sawmilling E. cyclocarpum wood is a pungent irritant to mucous membranes, can produce an allergic reaction in workers (Record and Hess, 1943; Echenique-Manrique and Plumptre, 1990), and can kill fish if dumped into rivers (Little et al., 1974)."
(2) AB: The ability of fruits of the conacaste tree to cause hepatogenous photosensitization in cattle was confirmed by feeding experiments.[PODS ONLY]

4.06

Suharti, M.; Irianto, R. S. B.; Santosa, S. (1994) Behaviour of the stem borer Xystrocera festiva Pascoe on Paraserianthes falcataria and integrated control. FT: Perilaku hama penggerek batang sengon Xystrocera festiva Pascoe dan teknik pengendalian secara terpadu. Buletin Penelitian Hutan, 1994, No.558, pp.39-53, 5 ref.

AB: A study was made of the life cycle and behaviour of Xystrocera festiva in plantations of Paraserianthes falcataria at 2 locations in South Sumatra, followed by laboratory investigations of its rearing. The pest was shown to have various hosts (Acacia mangium, A. auriculiformis, A. arabica [A. nilotica], Pithecellobium jiringa, P. dulce, Samanea saman [Albizia saman] and Enterolobium cyclocalipum [E. cyclocarpum] ). The use of integrated control methods is suggested.
[ a pest subject to control and have certain specificity on Mimosaceae hosts - THIS IS A HUGE HOST RANGE]

4.07

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

"The dust from sawmilling E. cyclocarpum wood is a pungent irritant to mucous membranes, can produce an allergic reaction in workers (Record and Hess, 1943; Echenique-Manrique and Plumptre, 1990), and can kill fish if dumped into rivers (Little et al., 1974)." [SAW DUST IS NOT INHALED BY PUBLIC]

4.08

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

E. cyclocarpum is native to the seasonally dry, tropical forest formation and becomes less frequent progressing from deciduous to evergreen wet forest, where it occurs rarely and then only on disturbed sites such as river banks [a single trunked, large tree - low fire risk]

4.09

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

It is a strongly light demanding species and must receive adequate sunlight as a dominant or co-dominant from the sapling stage onwards

4.1

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Soil and physiography
E. cyclocarpum can tolerate a wide range of soil types from alkaline and calcareous to mildly acidic (pH as low as 5), provided that aluminium saturation is not a problem. It grows best on deep, medium-textured soils, but can also tolerate sandy and clay soils provided drainage is not impeded. It does not thrive on sites prone to waterlogging (Francis, 1988).
Descriptors
- Soil texture: light; medium; heavy
- Soil drainage: free
- Soil reaction: acid; neutral; alkaline
- Special soil tolerances:
- Soil types: alluvial soils; cambisols; regosols; tropical soils; vertisols

4.11

tree

4.12

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

A giant, thornless, canopy tree to 30-40 m tall and 2-3 m stem diameter with a short, clear bole, often supported by small buttresses, heavy branching and a huge spreading rounded crown.

5.01

terrestrial

5.02

tree; Fabaceae (Mimosaceae)

5.03

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

It is known to be nitrogen-fixing

5.04

tree

6.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Genetic conservation
The once continuous dry tropical forest formation of Mesoamerica where E. cyclocarpum occurs has been largely cleared and is now reduced to less than 2% of its original extent. What does remain is thus hyper-fragmented. Within the agricultural landscape there are still numerous large adult trees of E. cyclocarpum scattered, especially in pastures, in many parts of the native range. However, there is almost no natural regeneration as seedlings are apparently killed by trampling, fire, desiccation, grass competition and grazing. Janzen (1986) has described such trees as the 'living dead' and has predicted that E. cyclocarpum will become very rare or extinct outside protected areas within the next century as these large trees die or are cut for timber (Janzen, 1983). [No - because there is evidence that the seeds are germinating - the seedling establishment is inhibited because of human activities.]

6.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Propagation is mainly by seed

6.03

no evidence

6.04

Rocha, O. J.; Lobo, J. A. (1997) Genetic diversity and outcrossing rates in the guanacaste tree (Enterolobium cyclocarpum Jacq.) in the dry forests of Costa Rica. ED: Bruns, S.; Mantell, S.; Trägardh, C.; Viana, A. M. Recent advances in biotechnology for tree conservation and management. Proceedings of an IFS Workshop, Florianópolis, Brazil, 15-19 September 1997., 1998, pp.65-81, 4 pp. of ref.

AB: "E. cyclocarpum is a predominantly outcrossed species, as all estimates indicated that nearly 90% of the progeny produced from each tree resulted from cross fertilization. In addition, very low levels of biparental inbreeding (Tm-Ts was only about 5%) were found. Both spatial and temporal variation were found in the outcrossing rates; furthermore, significant variation was found among outcrossing rates estimated for individual trees. When the data were examined using the correlated mating model proposed by Ritland, significant variation in effective selfing rates among populations and among years was detectable. Also a positive correlation was found between effective selfing rate and correlation of selfing, indicating significant variation in selfing rates in space and time." [depends on genotype introduced] 

6.05

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

A large tree of E. cyclocarpum may bear several million flowers. Each flower lasts 24 hours, but pollination is thought to be mainly by night-flying insects such as moths and beetles (Janzen, 1982a).

6.06

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Although trees are known to resprout vigorously after cutting, pollarding or ring-barking, there are no reports of successful vegetative propagation by grafting or rooting cuttings, although stump planting is successful

6.07

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Seed production can start at 15-25 years of age

7.01

no evidence

7.02

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

E. cyclocarpum is generally considered to have been introduced throughout the tropics mainly as a roadside or garden tree

7.03

no evidence

7.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Seed dispersal has been investigated in detail by Janzen (1981, 1982a, 1982b, 1982c) who suggested that the large indehiscent fruits were once eaten by large herbivores that are now extinct, and to a lesser extent by peccaries, tapirs and rodents, and that its seeds were dispersed by passing through them. This role has now been largely taken over, albeit imperfectly, by introduced horses and cattle. Seed dispersal by horses operates predominantly over distances of several 100 m to 1 km, i.e. similar to pollen flow distances, with more sporadic seed dispersal over much longer distances of 10-20 km (Janzen, 1981). 

7.05

Hunter, J. R. (1989) Seed dispersal and germination of Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Griseb. (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae): are megafauna necessary? Journal of Biogeography, 1989, Vol.16, No.4, pp.369-378, 49 ref.

AB: Experiments with seeds of this tree from Central America show that scarification of the seed testa may be more beneficial than heat treatment in stimulating rapid germination, but that a humid environment and warm tropical temperatures are completely adequate for this process. The hypothesis that megafauna served and presently serve as principal agents of seed dispersal is questioned. Dissemination by water (hydrochory) is suggested as an alternative strategy.

7.06

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

The full-sized green pods are heavily preyed on by Amazona parrots which remove the green seed contents (Janzen, 1983), and spiny pocket mice, Liomys salvini may consume up to 93% of dispersed seeds (Janzen, 1982d). [seed predators of UNRIPE pods]

7.07

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

The pods are 3-4 cm wide, curved to form an almost complete circle 8-10 cm in diameter, and dark lustrous-brown. The seeds are extremely hard, dark brown, compressed ovoid-ellipsoid, 13-20 x 11 x 8 mm, with a pale pleurogram and are arranged in two rows with 10-15 and occasionally up to 22 seeds per pod.

7.08

(1) Mora G., B.; Rojas A., D. (1988) Study of the viability and percentage germination of seeds of Enterolobium cyclocarpum. [FT: Estudio de la viabilidad y procentaje de germinación de la semilla de Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Grisseb (Leguminosae). ]Tecnología en Marcha, 1988, Vol.9, No.2, pp.39-41, 6 ref.
(2) CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
(3) Janzen, D. H.; Demment, M. W.; Robertson, J. B. (1985) How fast and why do germinating guanacaste seeds (Enterolobium cyclocarpum ) die inside cows and horses? Biotropica, 1985, Vol.17, No.4, pp.322-325, 21 ref.

(1) "2.77% of seeds subjected to animal digestion germinated "
(2) Seed dispersal has been investigated in detail by Janzen (1981, 1982a, 1982b, 1982c) who suggested that the large indehiscent fruits were once eaten by large herbivores that are now extinct, and to a lesser extent by peccaries, tapirs and rodents, and that its seeds were dispersed by passing through them. This role has now been largely taken over, albeit imperfectly, by introduced horses and cattle. Seed dispersal by horses operates predominantly over distances of several 100 m to 1 km, i.e. similar to pollen flow distances, with more sporadic seed dispersal over much longer distances of 10-20 km (Janzen, 1981).
(3) AB: " It is concluded that large mammals act as dispersers rather than as scarifiers of E. cyclocarpum seed."  

8.01

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

An adult tree may produce 2000 pods, each with 10-16 seeds ; A giant, thornless, canopy tree to 30-40 m tall and 2-3 m stem diameter with a short, clear bole, often supported by small buttresses, heavy branching and a huge spreading rounded crown.
[2000 pod/tree x 10-16 seeds/pod = 20000-32000 seeds/tree, when the canopy is less than 20-32 square meter then yes, but this seems unlikely with the size of mature tree]

8.02

(1) Chacko, K. C.; Pillai, P. K. C. (1997) Storage and hot-water treatments enhance germination of guanacaste (Enterolobium cyclocarpum ) seeds. International Tree Crops Journal, 1997, Vol.9, No.2, pp.103-107, 7 ref.
(2) Mora G., B.; Rojas A., D. (1988) Study of the viability and percentage germination of seeds of Enterolobium cyclocarpum. [FT: Estudio de la viabilidad y procentaje de germinación de la semilla de Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Grisseb (Leguminosae). ]Tecnología en Marcha, 1988, Vol.9, No.2, pp.39-41, 6 ref.

(1) AB: " Seeds stored for two years recorded higher germination (40-53%) than fresh seeds (13-31%) after hot and boiling water pretreatments. Untreated and cold water treated seeds registered either nil or negligible (3-9%) germination. "
(2) AB: "Germination percentage was measured in 1985-86 seeds collected from the soil (subjected to 'natural climatological scarification' over 1 yr), and in 1986-87 seeds scarified by 3 methods - filing, and hot or cold water treatments. Respective germination percentages were 72.22, 61.11, 22.22 and 13.88. Germination of untreated 1986-87 seeds was zero."

8.03

no evidence of being controlled

8.04

CAB International, (2000) Forestry Compendium Global Module. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

resprout vigorously after cutting, coppicing or ring-barking

8.05

no evidence