Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Family - Arecaceae. Common Name(s) - African oil palm, oil palm. Synonym(s)

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated? (If answer is 'no' then go to question 2.01)

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

n

0

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n

0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n

0

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y

1

4.02

Allelopathic

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y

1

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y

1

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

n

0

5.02

Grass

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y

1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

n

-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

n

0

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

3

0

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y

1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y

1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y

1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y

1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y

1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

Total score:

10

Notes

Reference

1.01

Although oil palm has a long history of cultivation, there is no evidence of selection (1)The African oil palm is native to tropical Africa, from Sierra Leone in the west through the Democratic Republic of Congo in the east. It was domesticated in its native range, probably in Nigeria, and moved throughout tropical Africa by humans who practiced shifting agriculture at least 5000 years ago. European explorers discovered the palm in the late 1400's, and distributed it throughout the world during the slave trade period.(2)Oil palm seed for commercial planting is produced by crossing palms of the thick-shelled dura fruit form with the shell-less pisifera form to give thin-shelled tenera offspring. Several major oil palm breeding programmes are based on reciprocal recurrent selection (RRS), with dura and pisifera populations kept distinct; selfing and sib-crossing are usually included in these programmes to obtain parents for seed production, or for the next generation of crosses (Corley & Tinker, 2003). However, it is unusual for more than two consecutive generations of inbreeding to be done, partly for fear of inbreeding depression...Because of the long generation time and large scale of trials, phenotypic selection of parents is important, even in RRS programmes based mainly on progeny testing...MPOB has also set up an Institutional Biosafety Committee to address the various issues related to GM palms and field release of transgenic palms for evaluation. To date, there is no genetically modifed palm oil though active R&D is in progress.

(1)http://www.uga.edu/fruit/oilpalm.html [Accessed 24 Jan 2008] (2)Luyindula, N.; Mantantu, N.; Dumortier, F.; Corley, H. V. 2005. Effects of inbreeding on growth and yield of oil palm - Inbreeding of oil palm. Euphytica 143 (1-2) : 9-17.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)Center of origin of the oil palm is in the tropical rain forest region of West Africa in a region about 200-300 km wide along coastal belt from Liberia to Angola. The palm has spread from 16°N latitude in Senegal to 15°S in Angola and eastwards to the Indian Ocean, Zanzibar and Malagasy.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Elaeis_guineensis.html [18 Jan 2008]

2.02

2.03

(1)Occurs wild in riverine forests or in freshwater swamps. It cannot thrive in primeval forests and does not regenerate in high secondary forests. Requires adequate light and soil moisture, can tolerate temporary flooding or a fluctuating water table, as might be found along rivers. Ranges ecologically from savanna to rain forest. It is slightly hardier than coconut. Native to areas with 1,780 to 2,280 mm rainfall per year. Best developed on lowlands, with 2-4 month dry period. Mean maximum temperature of 30-32°C and mean minimum of 21-24°C provide suitable range. Seedling growth arrested below 15°C...Ranging from Subtropical Dry (without frost) through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, oil palm is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 42.6 dm (mean of 27 cases = 22.7), annual temperature of 18.7 to 27.4°C (mean of 27 cases = 24.8) (2)It is not hardy to cold and is adaptable only to zones 10 and 11.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Elaeis_guineensis.html [18 Jan 2008] (2)Riffle, R. L. 2003. An Encyclopedia of Cultivated Palms. Timber Press, Portland.

2.04

(1)Center of origin of the oil palm is in the tropical rain forest region of West Africa in a region about 200-300 km wide along coastal belt from Liberia to Angola. The palm has spread from 16°N latitude in Senegal to 15°S in Angola and eastwards to the Indian Ocean, Zanzibar and Malagasy. Now introduced and cultivated throughout the tropics between 16°N and S latitudes. Sometimes grown as an ornamental, as in southern Florida.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Elaeis_guineensis.html [18 Jan 2008]

2.05

(1)Center of origin of the oil palm is in the tropical rain forest region of West Africa in a region about 200-300 km wide along coastal belt from Liberia to Angola. The palm has spread from 16°N latitude in Senegal to 15°S in Angola and eastwards to the Indian Ocean, Zanzibar and Malagasy. Now introduced and cultivated throughout the tropics between 16°N and S latitudes. Sometimes grown as an ornamental, as in southern Florida.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Elaeis_guineensis.html [18 Jan 2008]

3.01

(1)Escaped from cultivation. (2)Other island-restricted invasive species such as Antigonon leptotus in Guam, Elaeis guineensis in Pohnpei, Kalanchoe pinnata in Palau, or Ocimum gratissimum are found in other Pacific islands where they are planted as garden ornamentals or are sparingly naturalised. (3)Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm) is spreading on Pohnpei, particularly on drier sites. (4)Elaeis guineensis N.J. Jacq. [GU SU FG] [cultivated, naturalized] (4)The oil palm was introduced to the Americas hundreds of years ago, where it became naturalized and associated with slave plantations, but did not become and industry of its own until the 1960s. (5)Native Status: Not Native, Naturalized (6)In some regions, such as Haiti and coastal Brazil, where there is a strong African tradition, it has become naturalized.

(1)Wunderlin, R. P. and B. F. Hansen. 2003. Guide to the Vascular Plants of Florida. University Press of Florida, Gainesville. (2)Meyer, J-Y. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). Pp. 85-114 in G. Sherley (ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. (3)Space, J. C. and Falanruw, M. 1999. Observations on invasive plant species in Micronesia. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. Report to the Pacific Islands Committee, Council of Western State Foresters. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 32 pp. (4)Boggan, J., V. Funk, C. Kelloff, M. Hoff, G. Cremers and C. Feuillet. 1997. CHECKLIST OF THE PLANTS OF THE GUIANAS (Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana): 2nd Edition. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. (4)http://www.uga.edu/fruit/oilpalm.html [Accessed 24 Jan 2008] (5)http://www.regionalconservation.org/ircs/database/plants/PlantPage.asp?TXCODE=Elaeguin [Accessed 24 Jan 2

3.02

No evidence despite widespread cultivation.(1)Oil palm has become one of the world’s largest plantation crops, with individual plantations sometimes exceeding 20,000 ha. Palm oil now makes up about 21% of world production of edible oils and fats, second only to soybean oil. Current global production of oil palm fruit is 97.7 million tons, produced from 10.7 million ha.

(1)Donald, P. F. 2004. Biodiversity impacts of some agricultural commodity production systems. Conservation Biology 18 (1) : 17-37.

3.03

No evidence despite widespread cultivation.(1)Oil palm has become one of the world’s largest plantation crops, with individual plantations sometimes exceeding 20,000 ha. Palm oil now makes up about 21% of world production of edible oils and fats, second only to soybean oil. Current global production of oil palm fruit is 97.7 million tons, produced from 10.7 million ha.

(1)Donald, P. F. 2004. Biodiversity impacts of some agricultural commodity production systems. Conservation Biology 18 (1) : 17-37.

3.04

No evidence of impacts. (1) Elaeis guineensis (palm): Elaeis guineensis is native to the west African coast from Liberia to Angola. It has been introduced to many islands in the Pacific and to South America at the time of slavery. It is widely cultivated for the oil products obtained from its fruit and seed. However it is now showing potential of being invasive from cultivation in some dry areas of the Pacific and has become very invasive in remnants of Atlantic Forest in Bahia state, Northeast Brazil. (2)Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm) is spreading on Pohnpei, particularly on drier sites.

(1)http://www.invasivespecies.net/database/species/ecology.asp?si=377&fr=1&sts=sss [Accessed 24 Jan 2008] (2)Space, J. C. and Falanruw, M. 1999. Observations on invasive plant species in Micronesia. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. Report to the Pacific Islands Committee, Council of Western State Foresters. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 32 pp.

3.05

(1)Only two species currently recognized [neither considered serious weeds]

(1)http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt [Accessed 25 Jan 2008]

4.01

(1)The stout green petioles are 3 to 5 feet long and armed with long, fibrous spines. (2) its petiole, up to 1 m long, is marginally spiny and toothed.

(1)Riffle, R. L. 2003. An Encyclopedia of Cultivated Palms. Timber Press, Portland. (2)http://www.dipbot.unict.it/palms/descr05.html [18 Jan 2008}

4.02

No evidence

4.03

No evidence

4.04

Young plants eaten by various animals. (1)E. guineensis is attacked by nematodes, slugs, snails, mites, insects, birds and mammals. Mammals include rats, wild pigs, monkeys and elephants, which damage seedlings and fruits.

(1)http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=724 [Accessed 25 Jan 2008]

4.05

No evidence of toxicity.

4.06

(1) Many fungi attack oil palms, but the most serious ones are the following: Blast (Pythium splendens, followed by Rhizoctonia lamellifera), Freckle (Cercospora elaeidis), Anthracnose (Botryodiplodia palmarum, Melanconium elaeidis, Glomerella cingulata), Seedling blight (Curvularia eragrostidis), Yellow patch and Vascular wilt (Fusarium oxysporum), Basal rot of trunk (Ceratocystis paradoxa, imp. stage of Thielaviopsis paradoxa), other trunk rots (Ganoderma spp., Armillaria mellea); Crown disease, rotting of fruit (Marasmius palmivorus). Spear rot or bud rot is caused by the bacterium Erwinia sp., which has devastated entire areas in S. Congo. The following nematodes have been isolated from oil palms: Aphelenchus avenae, Helicotylenchus pseudorobustus, H. microcephalus Hoplolaimus pararobustus, H. sp., Meloidogyne sp., Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus (serious in Venezuela), and Scutellonema clathrocaudatus (Golden, p.c., 1984). The major pests of oil palm in various parts of the world are the following: Palm weevils (Rhynchophorus phoenicis, R. palmarum, R. ferrugineus), Rhinoceros beetles (Oryctes rhinoceros, O. boas, O. monoceros, O. owariensis), Weevils (Strategus aloeus, Temnoschoita quadripustulata), Leaf-miners (Coelaenomenodera elaeidis, Hispolepis elaeidis, Alurunus humeralis), Slug caterpillar (Parasa viridissima), Nettle caterpillar (Setora nitens), Bagworms (Cremastophysche pendula, Mahasena corbetti, Metisa plana). (2)In South and Central America, tens of thousands of hectares of oil palms (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) are affected by bud-rot types of disease. Having destroyed entire estates in Panama, Colombia, Suriname, Brazil and Ecuador, they are holding back the development of oil palm cultivation in Latin America. The cause is unknown. Indeed, 30 years after these diseases first wreaked havoc on a large scale, it is still not known whether we are dealing with one or more diseases of infectious origin, or with a physiological disorder. Despite lengthy research launched in the early 1980s, no pathogens or insect vectors have been clearly identified. At present, genetics look likely to offer a solution in the medium- to long term, using traits of resistance transmitted by the native species on the American continent, Elaeis oleifera, to the interspecific hybrid E. oleiferaXE. guineensis...Unfortunately, oil palm cultivation in this geographical zone is confronted with a wide range of pests and diseases, most of which jeopardize its sustainability. In particular, it is bud-rot type diseases that pose the greatest threat. These begin with rotting of the spear. If the infection spreads to the meristem, palm death occurs. Examples include pudrici´on del cogollo (PC) and amarelecimento fatal (AF). They are found primarily in Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Panama and Suriname and are of considerable economic importance, as they have already caused the complete destruction of the oil palm crops on several estates. (3)Pests and diseases: E. guineensis is attacked by nematodes, slugs, snails, mites, insects, birds and mammals. Mammals include rats, wild pigs, monkeys and elephants, which damage seedlings and fruits. Birds include the long-tailed parakeet, the American black vulture, the house crow and the large-billed crow. The birds carry away fruit from the bunch and scatter it half-eaten. Only 1 nematode, Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus, has been responsible for a serious diseased condition, red-ring disease. Damaging insects include the oil palm bunch moth and the West African oil palm leaf miner. Diseases have become prevalent in areas where E. guineensis is cultivated on a plantation scale. Diseases of particular concern include fusarium wilt (caused by Fusarium oxysporum) and bacterial bud rot (in Democratic Republic of Congo), dry basal rot, caused by Ceratocystis paradoxa (in Nigeria), ganoderma trunk rot and crown disease in Asia; and spear rot in the American tropics. Spear rot has emerged as a major threat to E. guineensis production in Latin America.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Elaeis_guineensis.html [18 Jan 2008] (2)De Franqueville, H. 2003. Oil palm bud rot in Latin America. Experimental Agriculture 39 (3) : 225-240. (3)http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=724 [Accessed 25 Jan 2008]

4.07

(1)The pollen of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is a strong allergen and causes severe pollinosis in Malaysia and Singapore.

(1) Kimura, Yoshinobu; Yoshiie, Takeo; Kit, Woo Kwan; Maeda, Megumi; Kimura, Mariko; Tan, Siang Hee. 2003. Structural features of N-glycans linked to glycoproteins from oil palm pollen, an allergenic pollen.Bioscience Biotechnology and Biochemistry 67 (10) : 2232-2239.

4.08

No evidence that this species promotes fire. (1)Two other important characteristics of this tree contribute to its being particularly favoured in forests subjected to fires. First, the seeds show enhanced germination following a heat treatment (Purseglove 1972, in Swaine and Hall 1986, pp 65-66). Secondly, the oil palm is resistant to fire, as the stem tissues are protected by the persistent, densely-arranged, woody leaf bases (cf. Swaine 1992, p 372). (2)Rhizomatous herbs are well-equipped to survive fire, and Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (the oil palm), in common with other palms (Kauffman 1991), is resistant to fire, having no cambium and stem tissues protected by persistent woody leaf bases.

(1)Sowunmi, M. A. 1999. The significance of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) in the late Holocene environments of west and west central Africa: A further consideration. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 8(3):199-210. (2)Swaine, M.D. 1992. Characteristics of Dry Forest in West Africa and the Influence of Fire. Journal of Vegetation Science 3(3): 365-374.

4.09

(1)Plenty of sun, intolerant of shade.

(1)http://www.tropical-biology.org/research/dip/species/Elaeis%20guineensis.htm [Accessed 24 Jan 2008]

4.10

(1)Grows and thrives on wide range of tropical soils, provided they have adequate water supply. Waterlogged, highly lateritic, extremely sandy, stony or peaty soils should be avoided. Coastal marine alluvial clays, soils of volcanic origin, acid sands and other coastal alluviums are used. Soils with pH of 4-6 are most often used. (2)A rich, humus-laden soil is best, although the palm can adapt to many soils. (3)Soil - wide range of soil types, provided good drainage and pH between 4 and 7; tolerates periodic flooding or a high water table; many soils are alluvial in nature. Irrigation is generally not practiced.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Elaeis_guineensis.html [18 Jan 2008] (2)Riffle, R. L. 2003. An Encyclopedia of Cultivated Palms. Timber Press, Portland. (3)http://www.uga.edu/fruit/oilpalm.html [Accessed 24 Jan 2008]

4.11

(1)Tall palm, 8.3-20 m tall, erect, heavy, trunks ringed;

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Elaeis_guineensis.html [18 Jan 2008]

4.12

No evidence (1)Natural Habitat: It is difficult to determine the natural habitat of the oil palm because, while it does not grow in primeval forest, it flourishes in habitats where forests have been cleared. It requires a relatively open area to grow and reproduce itself and thrives best when soil moisture is maintained. Normally, E. guineensis occurs in disturbed forests and along rivers and streams, both in its native range in West Africa and in some introduced areas. It is a succession species favoured by slash and burn, and its gene pool has expanded as farmers clear land and create more open habitat for the germination of its seeds.

(1)http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=724 [Accessed 25 Jan 2008]

5.01

Terrestrial palm.

5.02

Arecaceae

5.03

Arecaceae

5.04

woody Palm

6.01

Reproductive failure occurs in introduced, not native, habitats. (1)Abstract: In South and Central America, tens of thousands of hectares of oil palms (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) are affected by bud-rot types of disease. Having destroyed entire estates in Panama, Colombia, Suriname, Brazil and Ecuador, they are holding back the development of oil palm cultivation in Latin America. The cause is unknown. Indeed, 30 years after these diseases first wreaked havoc on a large scale, it is still not known whether we are dealing with one or more diseases of infectious origin, or with a physiological disorder. Despite lengthy research launched in the early 1980s, no pathogens or insect vectors have been clearly identified. At present, genetics look likely to offer a solution in the medium- to long term, using traits of resistance transmitted by the native species on the American continent, Elaeis oleifera, to the interspecific hybrid E. oleiferaXE. guineensis...Unfortunately, oil palm cultivation in this geographical zone is confronted with a wide range of pests and diseases, most of which jeopardize its sustainability. In particular, it is bud-rot type diseases that pose the greatest threat. These begin with rotting of the spear. If the infection spreads to the meristem, palm death occurs. Examples include pudrici´on del cogollo (PC) and amarelecimento fatal (AF). They are found primarily in Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Panama and Suriname and are of considerable economic importance, as they have already caused the complete destruction of the oil palm crops on several estates.

(1)De Franqueville, H. 2003. Oil palm bud rot in Latin America. Experimental Agriculture 39 (3) : 225-240.

6.02

(1)Normally oil palms are propagated by seed. (2)Oil palm is propagated by seed

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Elaeis_guineensis.html [18 Jan 2008] (2)http://www.uga.edu/fruit/oilpalm.html [Accessed 24 Jan 2008]

6.03

(1)Elaeis oleifera, an oil palm species endemic to South and Central America, readily hybridizes with Elaeis guineensis. (2)The genus Elaeis includes two other species (Hardon 1995), both of which are wild. E. oleifera is endemic to northern South America; its range extends north to Costa Rica. This species hybridizes readily with E. guineensis to produce offspring that are fertile but have reduced pollen viability (Hardon and Tan 1969). "In Colombia and Costa Rica, natural hybrids have been found when E. oleifera palms grew in close proximity to commercial plants of E. guineensis" (Meunier and Hardon 1976).

(1) Wahid, Mohd. Basri; Abdullah, Siti Nor Akmar; Henson, I. E. 2005. Oil palm - Achievements and potential. Plant Production Science 8 (3, Sp. Iss. SI) : 288-297. (2)Ellstrand, N. E. 2003. Dangerous Liaisons?: When Cultivated Plants Mate with Their Wild. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.

6.04

Although theoretically self-compatible, selfing results in less vigorous offspring and could not occur in a natural setting. (1)African Oil Palm is monoecious and cross-pollinated, and individual palms are very heterozygous. (2)The effects of inbreeding were studied in three oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) trials in the Democratic Republic of Congo (Congo). In selfings, marked inbreeding depression was observed for yield of fruit bunches, mean bunch weight and bunch number, but there was little effect on bunch composition. Most vegetative measurements were significantly affected by selfing, but leaf production rate and leaf area ratio were unaffected. Sib-crossing had less depressive effect than selfing, and in some families sib-crosses were superior to outcrosses. Where selection needs to be done within inbred families, our study suggests that leaf area ratio and bunch composition would be useful criteria. (3)Individual oil palms produce both male (Fig. 1) and female flowers (Fig. 2), but not at the same time. (4)Oil palm requires adequate pollination to set fruit. Though both male and female inflorescences occur on the same plant (Figures 13 and 14), cross-pollination is necessary because the inflorescences on a plant are seldom simultaneously receptive.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Elaeis_guineensis.html [18 Jan 2008] (2)Luyindula, N.; Mantantu, N.; Dumortier, F.; Corley, H. V. 2005. Effects of inbreeding on growth and yield of oil palm - Inbreeding of oil palm. Euphytica 143 (1-2) : 9-17. (3)Mayfield, Margaret M. 2005. The importance of nearby forest to known and potential pollinators of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.; Areceaceae) in southern Costa Rica. Economic Botany 59 (2): 190-196. (4)http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/agps/C-CAB/Castudies/pdf/apist.pdf [24 Jan 2008]

6.05

(1 )Individual oil palms produce both male (Fig. 1) and female flowers (Fig. 2), but not at the same time. Male flowers produce a strong anise-like odor to attract pollen-collecting insects. Female flowers produce a similar but weaker smell and provide no floral rewards. Oil palms require insects for maximal fruit production and a lack of pollinators has led to serious yield losses in plantations outside of West Africa (13, 15). Wind is known to transfer some pollen, but this mode of pollen transfer is effective only in dry conditions (13, 15). Insects native to Malaysia, Indonesia, and Central America are known to pollinate oil palms but the Cameroon weevil, Elaeidobius kamerunicus (Faust), due to its known and well documented effectiveness as an oil palm pollinator, has been introduced into most palm-producing regions to ensure pollination...Other insects, including flies and solitary bees, are known to visit palm flowers in Costa Rican plantations, yet no studies have examined the visitation rates or pollination ability of these species. (2)Oil palms are primarily insect pollinated by various insects: in Africa, weevils (Elaeidobius spp), in Latin America, Mystrops costaricensis and Elaeidobius sp.

(1)Mayfield, Margaret M. 2005. The importance of nearby forest to known and potential pollinators of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.; Areceaceae) in southern Costa Rica. Economic Botany 59 (2): 190-196. (2)http://www.uga.edu/fruit/oilpalm.html [Accessed 24 Jan 2008]

6.06

(1)Vegetative propagation is not feasible as tree has only one growing point.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Elaeis_guineensis.html [18 Jan 2008]

6.07

(1)It is moderately slow growing but grows faster with ample moisture and a rich soil. (2)Mature inflorescences are visible typically 32–36 months after seed germination (Corley, 1976b)...The inflorescence is initiated in the axil of each leaf of the oil palm from an early stage shortly after germination and continues throughout the lifetime of the plant. The development of the inflorescence takes over 2 years; the organ is completely enclosed at the base of the subtending leaf for most of this time.

(1)Riffle, R. L. 2003. An Encyclopedia of Cultivated Palms. Timber Press, Portland. (2)Adam, Helene; Jouannic, Stefan; Escoute, Jacques; Duval, Yves; Verdeil, Jean-Luc; Tregear, James W. 2005. Reproductive developmental complexity in the African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis, Arecaceae). American Journal of Botany 92 (11): 1836-1852.

7.01

Relatively large fruit and seeds unlikely to be dispersed unintentionally.

7.02

(1) Now introduced and cultivated throughout the tropics between 16°N and S latitudes. Sometimes grown as an ornamental, as in southern Florida. (2)Oil palm has become one of the world’s largest plantation crops, with individual plantations sometimes exceeding 20,000 ha. Palm oil now makes up about 21% of world production of edible oils and fats, second only to soybean oil. Current global production of oil palm fruit is 97.7 million tons, produced from 10.7 million ha.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Elaeis_guineensis.html [18 Jan 2008] (2)Donald, P. F. 2004. Biodiversity impacts of some agricultural commodity production systems. Conservation Biology 18 (1) : 17-37.

7.03

Large-seeded palm unlikely to become produce contaminant.

7.04

Large-seeded palm. (1)Man is thought to be the most important vector for oil palm seed dispersal in the tropical rainforest of Africa, with other major means of seed dispersal including mammals, rodents and birds. Gravity and water are other less important agents of oil palm seed dispersal.

(1)Hayati, A., R. Wickneswari, I. Maizura and N. Rajanaidu. 2004. Genetic diversity of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) germplasm collections from Africa: implications for improvement and conservation of genetic resources. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 108:1274–1284.

7.05

Although not as important as other methods of dispersal, habitat along rivers and streams suggests water dispersal normally occurs. (1)Normally, E. guineensis occurs in disturbed forests and along rivers and streams, both in its native range in West Africa and in some introduced areas. (2)Gravity and water are other less important agents of oil palm seed dispersal.

(1)http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=724 [Accessed 25 Jan 2008] (2)Hayati, A., R. Wickneswari, I. Maizura and N. Rajanaidu. 2004. Genetic diversity of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) germplasm collections from Africa: implications for improvement and conservation of genetic resources. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 108:1274–1284.

7.06

(1)The fruits are borne in large bunches, each of which may carry up to 20 pounds of fruit. The red fruits are oval, 1 to 2 inches long and an inch or more in diameter. The flesh contains 30 to 70 percent of nondrying oil. (2)The Black Kite, Milvus migrans, includes a high proportion of oil palm fruits (Elaeis guineensis) in its diet in Ivory Coast, West Africa, even feeding them to its young (Thiollay, 1994), but there are no reports of it doing so in Asia. (3)Another group of hornbill-dispersed species, including the rattans Lacosperma secundijlorum and Eremospatha macrocarpa, the oil palm Elaeis guineensis, and the raphia palm Raphia monbuttorum, are non-timber forest products used extensively within Central Africa. (4)Black vultures (Coragypt atratus) feed avidly on E. guineensis and are involved in its dispersal.

(1)http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Palm_oil.html [18 Jan 2008] (2)Corlett, R. 1998. Frugivory and seed dispersal by vertebrates in the Oriental (Indomalayan) Region. Biological Reviews 73(4): 367-472. (3)Kenneth D. Whitney; Mark K. Fogiel; Aaron M. Lamperti; Kimberly M. Holbrook; Donald J. Stauffer; Britta Denise Hardesty; V. Thomas Parker; Thomas B. Smith. 1998. Seed Dispersal by Ceratogymna Hornbills in the Dja Reserve, Cameroon. Journal of Tropical Ecology 14(3): 351-371. (4)http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=724 [Accessed 25 Jan 2008]

7.07

Relatively large fruit without means of external attachment.

7.08

(1)In Malaysia, Ickes (2001) found extremely high populations of wild pigs (Sus scrofula) in forest fragments surrounding oil-palm plantations. Their presence was attributed to the extinction of natural predators through fragmentation and the abundant food in the form of fallen oil palm fruit in the adjacent plantations. (2)The main function of the mesocarp in wild palms is probably to attract animals for fruit dispersal. (3)Whittow, Gould & Rand (1977) report that captive Moon Rats (Echinosorex gymnurus) ate various fruits and that wild individuals ate oil palm fruits, while Davis (1962) found fruit in one of seven stomach contents he examined. The Lesser Gymnure, Hylomys suillus, has also been reported to eat some fruit (Nowak, 1991; IUCN, 1995).

(1)Donald, P. F. 2004. Biodiversity impacts of some agricultural commodity production systems. Conservation Biology 18 (1) : 17-37. (2)Luyindula, N.; Mantantu, N.; Dumortier, F.; Corley, H. V. 2005. Effects of inbreeding on growth and yield of oil palm - Inbreeding of oil palm. Euphytica 143 (1-2) : 9-17. (3)Donald, P. F. 2004. Biodiversity impacts of some agricultural commodity production systems. Conservation Biology 18 (1): 17-37.

8.01

(1)Although new plantations start to bear at three years, generally the first commercial crop requires between five and six years and continues to produce for 25–30 years, or until the palms grow too high to be harvested. Once a plantation reaches full production, a new inflorescence is produced every 15 days. It weighs between 15 and 20 kg and can contain up to 1500 individual palm fruits of between 8 to 10 grammes each.

(1)http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/w3647e/W3647E04.htm [Accessed 25 Jan 2008]

8.02

(1) Abstract: Desiccation experiments have shown the oil palm seed to be orthodox, not recalcitrant, in character. There is a significant difference in water content between the whole seed and the embryo which is maintained despite desiccation, and results in the failure of sub-zero storage of whole seeds. The successful recovery of viable, excised embryos from liquid nitrogen, and their subsequent regrowth in vitro, suggests a practical technique for the long term conservation of the genetic resources of the species. (2) Germplasm Management: Seed storage behaviour is intermediate. Storage temperatures of 5 deg. C are said to damage seed viability in moist storage. Kernels were safely dried to 4.4% mc when set to germinate in vitro. However, hermetic storage of intact kernels at -18 deg. C or -196 deg. C with moisture content between 20.9% and 4.4% resulted in a loss in viability by about 13%; no loss in viability after 8 months subsequent storage in liquid nitrogen; no loss in viability occurred after 4 months hermetic storage at either 10 deg. C or 30 deg. C with 19.4-5.2% mc; 50-70% of excised embryos survived desiccation to 10.4% mc by slow drying, and no loss in viability in subsequent cryostorage overnight; seeds tolerated desiccation to 10-6% mc; depending on seed lot, no loss in viability after 12 months of hermetic storage at 15 deg. C, but complete loss in viability occurred at 0 deg. C and -20 deg. C; there are about 230 seeds/kg. (3)Abstract: Oil palm, Elaeis guineensis Jacq., seed is dormant when harvested and, under natural conditions, germinates sporadically over several years. A method to break dormancy would be beneficial to commercial seed production and the timely supply of planting material. Hence, this investigation evaluated seed germination by using accelerated aging to break dormancy in fresh oil palm seed. Changes in seed moisture content during ambient storage and accelerated aging (AA) were documented. Accelerated aging was performed according to the Seed Vigour Testing Handbook of the Association of Official Seed Analysts. One sub-sample was AA treated without initial water soaking and another was presoaked for five days prior to the AA test. An un-aged control sample was maintained under ambient storage conditions at 35°C in closed polyethylene bags. Seed were tested for germination and moisture content following AA treatment at ten day intervals over 120 days. Moisture content of the control was found to decrease over the 120 day storage period; whereas, aged seeds maintained uniformly high moisture content. Aged oil palm seeds exhibited significantly improved germination capacity compared to un-aged seeds. It was noteworthy that presoaked AA treated seeds recorded 40, 72 and 80% germination after 50, 60 and 70 days; whereas, un-aged seeds had no germination during the same period. Furthermore, the five day presoak followed by aging treatment significantly improved germination.

(1)GROUT B W W; SHELTON K; PRITCHARD H W. 1983. ORTHODOX BEHAVIOR OF OIL PALM ELAEIS-GUINEENSIS SEED AND CRYO PRESERVATION OF THE EXCISED EMBRYO FOR GENETIC CONSERVATION. Annals of Botany (London) 52 (3) : 381-384 (2)http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=724 [25 Jan 2008] (3)Murugesan, P., Mathur, R. K., Pillai, R. S. N., Babu, M. K. 2005. Effect of accelerated aging on seed germination of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq. var. dura Becc.). Seed Technology 27(1): 108-112.

8.03

Don't know. No evidence of chemical control efforts in literature.

8.04

Tolerant of fire and cutting (1)Two other important characteristics of this tree contribute to its being particularly favoured in forests subjected to fires. First, the seeds show enhanced germination following a heat treatment (Purseglove 1972, in Swaine and Hall 1986, pp 65-66). Secondly, the oil palm is resistant to fire, as the stem tissues are protected by the persistent, densely-arranged, woody leaf bases (cf. Swaine 1992, p 372). (2)Rhizomatous herbs are well-equipped to survive fire, and Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (the oil palm), in common with other palms (Kauffman 1991), is resistant to fire, having no cambium and stem tissues protected by persistent woody leaf bases. (3) Physical. The trees are cut down, (PIER, 2003). The palm however, resprouts after cutting, so there has to be complementary chemical control (Ziller, S., pers.comm., 2004).

(1)Sowunmi, M. A. 1999. The significance of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) in the late Holocene environments of west and west central Africa: A further consideration. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 8(3):199-210. (2)Swaine, M.D. 1992. Characteristics of Dry Forest in West Africa and the Influence of Fire. Journal of Vegetation Science 3(3): 365-374. (3)http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=377&fr=1&sts= [Accessed 25 Jan 2008]

8.05

Unknown for Hawaii, but enemies occur in other introduced ranges. (1)Abstract: In South and Central America, tens of thousands of hectares of oil palms (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) are affected by bud-rot types of disease. Having destroyed entire estates in Panama, Colombia, Suriname, Brazil and Ecuador, they are holding back the development of oil palm cultivation in Latin America. The cause is unknown. Indeed, 30 years after these diseases first wreaked havoc on a large scale, it is still not known whether we are dealing with one or more diseases of infectious origin, or with a physiological disorder. Despite lengthy research launched in the early 1980s, no pathogens or insect vectors have been clearly identified. At present, genetics look likely to offer a solution in the medium- to long term, using traits of resistance transmitted by the native species on the American continent, Elaeis oleifera, to the interspecific hybrid E. oleiferaXE. guineensis.

(1)De Franqueville, H. 2003. Oil palm bud rot in Latin America. Experimental Agriculture 39 (3) : 225-240.