Arachis hypogaea L. Family - Fabaceae. Common Names(s) - peanut, groundnut, goober. Synonym(s) -

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

y

-3

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

y

1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

-2

Notes

Source

1.01

(1) Native to South America; now widely cultivated in warm countries throughout the world. Introduced in pre-Columbian times to West Indies and Mexico, in early post-Columbian times to Africa and eastern Asia and during the colonial period to Atlantic North America. Known only in cultivation. (2) In the cultivated Arcahis hypogaea, the pods remain attached to the mother plant by pegs. Maintenance of tight fruit attachment to the peg after maturation is an advanced character in the genus Arachis, selected for in the process of domestication of the cultigen.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29]. (2) http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=R6Fo-8S2owkC&oi=fnd&pg=PA19&dq=arachis+hypogaea+%2B+%22dispersal%22&ots=cXlR2aKZ27&sig=
0PTJzvZMdJD1NS8rAAB2_bo0skw#v=onepage&q=arachis%20hypogaea%20%2B%20%22dispersal%22&f=false [Cited 2009 September 29].

1.02

(1) Listed as possibly naturalized in Taiwan. (2) Naturalized in Taiwan

(1) Wu, S.H., Hsieh, C.H. , Rejmánek, M. 2004. Catalogue of the naturalized flora of Taiwan. Taiwania 49:16-31. (2) wu, S.H., Chaw, S.M., Rejmánek, M. 2003. Naturalized Fabaceae (Leguminosae) species in Taiwan: the first approximation. Bot. Bull. Acad. Sin. 44:59-66.

1.03

No evidence of weedy races.

2.01

(1) Suitable for tropics, subtropics and warm temperate regions, grown from 40°S to 40°N latitude. Native to South America.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29].

2.02

(1) Suitable for tropics, subtropics and warm temperate regions, grown from 40°S to 40°N latitude. Native to South America.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29].

2.03

(1) Suitable for tropics, subtropics and warm temperate regions, grown from 40°S to 40°N latitude. Assigned to the South American and African Centers of Diversity, peanut or cvs thereof is reported to exhibit tolerance to aluminum, disease, drought, frost, fungus, high pH, heat, insects, laterite, limestone, low pH, sand, smog, savanna, ultraviolet, and virus

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29].

2.04

(1) Suitable for tropics, subtropics and warm temperate regions, grown from 40°S to 40°N latitude. Native to South America.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29].

2.05

(1) "The cultivated peanut or groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), originated in South America (Bolivia and adjoining countries) and is now grown throughout the tropical an warm temperate regions of the, world. This crop was grown widely by native peoples of the New World at the time of European expansion in the sixteenth century and was subsequently taken to Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Islands. Peanut was introduced to the present southeastern United States during colonial times. Peanut, an important oil and food crop, is currently grown on approximately 42 million acres worldwide. It is the third major oilseed of the world next to soybean and cotton. India, China, and the United States have been the leading producers for over 25 years and grow about 70% of the world crop>"

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/peanut.html [Cited 2009 September 29].

3.01

(1) Listed as possibly naturalized in Taiwan. (2) Naturalized in Taiwan

(1) Wu, S.H., Hsieh, C.H. , Rejmánek, M. 2004. Catalogue of the naturalized flora of Taiwan. Taiwania 49:16-31. (2) wu, S.H., Chaw, S.M., Rejmánek, M. 2003. Naturalized Fabaceae (Leguminosae) species in Taiwan: the first approximation. Bot. Bull. Acad. Sin. 44:59-66.

3.02

No evidence

3.03

No evidence.

3.04

No evidence. (1) The Global Invasive Species Program lists Arachis hypogaea as a species not prone to invasion (under species used or being considered for biofuel production).

(1) http://www.gisp.org/whatsnew/docs/biofuels.pdf [Cited 2009 September 30].

3.05

(1) Arachis glabrata is an invasive species at the Archbold Biological Station, Lake Placid, Florida. It is typically found in pastures, roadsides and disturbed sites. (2) Arachis glabrata isn't invasive. Since its introduction it has not spread to natural areas or become a nuisance plant in unimproved properties. Rhizomial peanut does not reproduce by seed; therefore cannot be dispersed by birds or animals.

(1) http://www.archbold-station.org/abs/landmanage/ExoticsGrant03/ExoticsMain/rhizoma_peanut.htm [Cited 2009 September 30]. (2) http://www.fshs.org/Proceedings/Password%20Protected/2004%20v.%20117/289-290.pdf [Cited 2009 September 30].

4.01

(1) Annual ascending (Guaranian and sequential Peruvian) to somewhat longer-lived ascending, decumbent, or prostrate (Bolivian and Amazonian), geocarpic, glabrate to hirsute herbs with upright main or n-axes. Tap root with four series of spirally arranged lateral roots with abundant branching and usually heavily supplied with nodules. Root tip without epidermis and without root liars. Leaves stipulate, pinnate with two opposite pairs of leaflets, alternately arranged in a 2/5 phyllotaxy on main axis; distichous on higher order branches. Flowers pea-like, enclosed between two bracts, one simple, subtending a very short peduncle, the other bifid, subtending the pedicel; sessile, but appear to be stalked after growth of a tubular hypanthium just before anthesis

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29].

4.02

No evidence

4.03

(1) Not parasitic.

(1) http://www.parasiticplants.siu.edu/ListParasites.html [Cited 2009 September 30].

4.04

(1) Arachis hypogaea is grown mainly for the pods, but also for hay, silage and pasture. After harvesting the groundnuts, the aerial portions become available for stock feed. They are exceptionally palatable. (2) In Georgia during 1939 about 83,000 hectares of Arachis hypogaea were grown for consumption by swine. the leaves and stems were recovered from 253,000 hectares harvested for nuts and were used as cattle feedstuff.

(1) http://www.fao.org/ag/AGA/agap/frg/AFRIS/Data/201.HTM [Cited 2009 September 30]. (2) http://jds.fass.org/cgi/reprint/62/8/1258.pdf [Cited 2009 September 30].

4.05

(1) Foliage provides silage and forage. Hogs may glean the fields following the harvester. Peanut hulls are used for livestock feed. (2) Arachis hypogaea is grown mainly for the pods, but also for hay, silage and pasture. After harvesting the groundnuts, the aerial portions become available for stock feed. They are exceptionally palatable. (3) In Georgia during 1939 about 83,000 hectares of Arachis hypogaea were grown for consumption by swine. the leaves and stems were recovered from 253,000 hectares harvested for nuts and were used as cattle feedstuff.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29]. (2) http://www.fao.org/ag/AGA/agap/frg/AFRIS/Data/201.HTM [Cited 2009 September 30]. (3) http://jds.fass.org/cgi/reprint/62/8/1258.pdf [Cited 2009 September 30].

4.06

(1) Calonectria crotalariae is a soil-borne pathogen that causes root, peg and pod necrosis of Arachis hypogaea in Georigia and collar rot of Acacia koa and Carica papaya In Hawaii. (2) Calonectria crotalariae has caused collar rot that seriously affected koa seedlings regenerating a burned area. (3) Arachis hypogaea is a host for Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus, which causes serious diseases of many economically important plants representing 35 plant families. This wide host range of ornamentals, vegetables, and field crops is unique among plant-infecting viruses. (4) Fungal diseases include: Ascochoyta arachidis (leaf-spot), Aspergillus flavus (yellow mold), A. niger (crown rot), A. pulvarulentus (crown rot), Botrytis cinerea (blight), Cercospora arachidicola (early leafspot), Cercosporidium personatum (late leafspot), C. canescens, Colletotrichum arachidis (anthracnose), C. dematium (anthracnose), C. mangenoti (anthracnose), Diplodia arachidis (collar rot), D. gossypina (collar rot), Dothiorella arachidis (stem disease), Fusarium moniliforme, F. oxysporum, F. roseum, F. solani var. martii, Leptosphaerulina crassiasca (pepper spot and leaf scorch), Macrophomina phaeoli (wilt, root rot, and stem rot), Oidium arachidis (powdery mildew), Pestalotiopsis arachidis (leafspot), Phyllosticta arachidis and Ph. hypogaeae (leafspot), Puccinia arachidis (rust), Pythium debaryanum (pod rot), P. myriotylum (pod rot), P. ultimum, Rhizoctonia solani (root rot), Rhizopus arrhizus, R. oryzae, R. stolonifer, Rhizoctonia solani (all cause seed and preemergence seedling rot), Sclerotinia arachidis, S. minor (root and pod rot), S. sclerotiorum (root and pod rot), Sclerotium rolfsii (stem rot), Verticillium dahliae and V. albo-atrum (wilt and pod rot), Sphaceloma arachidis (scab), Cylindrocladium crotalariae (black rot of roots, pegs and pods), Phomopsis sojae (leaf and stem diseases), Diaporthe sojae, Phomopsiodes arachidis (stem diseases), Chalara elegans (black hull), Phoma arachidicola (web blotch), Cristulariella pyramidalis (zonate leafspot). Some strains of Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, soilborne pathogens, may enter pods and kernels and produce toxic and carcinogenic aflatoxins. Bacterial diseases: Bacterium solanacearum, Phytomonas solanacearum, Xanthomonas solanacearum, Pseudomanas solanacearum, and brown bacterial leafspot. Viruses: abutilon mosaic, alfalfa mosaic, bean chlorotic ringspot, bean mosaic, bean necrosis, bean yellow mosaic, Brazilian tobacco streak, bunchy plant, chlorotic rosette, Euphorbia mosaic, Kromnek disease, leaf curl, marginal chlorosis, mosaic rosette, ringspot and mottle, Arachis virus I, rugose leafcurl, tobacco mosaic, southern sunnhemp mosaic, tomato spotted wilt, turnip mosaic, white clover mosaic and witches' broom, peanut stunt. Bud necrosis (TSWV) is serious disease in India and rosette can be devastating in Africa. Nematodes: Belonolaimus longicaudatus, Meloidogyne arenaria, M. hapla, Pratylenchus brachyurus. Of lesser importance are: Aphasmatylenchus straturratus, Aphelenchoides arachidis, Criconemella spp., Helicotylenchus spp., Hemicycliohora spp., Hoplolaimus spp., Longidorus spp., Meloidogyne javanica, Pratylenchus spp., Radopholus similes, Scutellonema spp., Telotylenchus spp., Trichodorus spp., Tylenchorhynchus spp., and Xiphinema spp. Insects: (1) Soil insects: lesser cornstalk borer, Elasmopalpus lignosellus Zeller; southern corn rootworm, Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi Barker and also D. balteata; whitefringed beetles, Graphognathus spp.; burrowing bug, Panageaus bilineatus Say and P. congruus; white grub, Strigoderma arbicola Fabricius; bahiagrass borer, Derobrachus brevicollis Audinet-Serville; and wireworms Conoderus, Melanotus, Heteroderes and Cebrio. (2) Foliage insects: corn earworm, Heliothis zea Boddie; tobacco budworm, H. virescens Fabricius; fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith; beet armyworm, S. exigua Hubner; granulate cutworm, Agrotis subterranea (Fabricius); velvetbean caterpillar, Anticarsia gemmatalis Hubner; rednecked peanutworm, Stegasta bosqueella Chambers; the salt marsh caterpillar, Estigmene acrea; green cloverworm, Platypena scabra Fabricius; cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni Hubner; tobacco thrips, Frankliniella fusca Hinds; potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae Harris; threecornered alfalfa hopper, Spissistilus festinus Say; and the arachnid spidermites, Tetranychus urticae, T. cinnabarinus and T. desertorum Koch. (3) Storage insects: Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella Hubner; Mediterranean flour moth, Anagasta kuehniella Zeller; almond moth, Cadra cautella Walker (Ephestis); sawtoothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus surinamensis L.; red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum Herbst; and the confused flour beetle, T. confusum (duVal). Other insects: Aphis craccivora Koch vector of rosette and other viruses (worldwide), Holotrichia sp., white grubs (India), Amsacta sp. (India), Peridontopyge, Entermes, Anoplocnemis and Halticus (Senegal). Dicotyledonous parasites: Alectra abyssinica, A. senegalensis var. arachidis, A. vogelii, Striga asiatica, S. gesneriodies, S. hermonthica, S. lutea and S. senegalensis. Weeds: Ageratum conyzoides, Cenchrus echinatus, Cynodon dac, tylon, Cyperus rotundus, Digitaria longiflora, Digitaria sanguinalis, Echinochloa colonum, Eleusine indica, Portulaca oleracea, Rottboellia exaltata, Setaria pallidefusca, Sorghum halepense, Tribulus terrestris, and Tridax procumbens

(1) http://www.jstor.org/pss/3758324 [Cited 2009 September 30]. (2) http://www.na.fs.fed.us/pubs/silvics_manual/Volume_2/acacia/koa.htm [Cited 2009 September 30]. (3) http://vegetablemdonline.ppath.cornell.edu/factsheets/Virus_SpottedWilt.htm [Cited 2009 September 30]. (4) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 30].

4.07

(1) Seeds yield a non-drying, edible oil, used in cooking, margarines, salads, canning, for deep-frying, for shortening in pastry and bread, and for pharmaceuticals, soaps, cold creams, pomades and lubricants, emulsions for insect control, and fuel for diesel engines. The oil cake, a high-protein livestock feed, may be used for human consumption. Other products include dyes, ice cream, massage oil, paints, and peanut milk. Seeds are eaten raw, whole roasted and salted, or chopped in confectioneries, or ground into peanut butter. Young pods may be consumed as a vegetable. Young leaves and tips are suitable as a cooked green vegetable. (2)" In the last 10 years, there has been an increase in the number of children that are allergic to peanuts. This is thought to be due to the increased popularity and use of peanut products by the population in the last decade and the introduction of peanut products to children’s diets at an early age. Thus, it is increasingly common for the public to be exposed to an abundantly used and often disguised food such as peanuts. This has led to increasing rates of sensitization, accidental ingestion, anaphylaxis, and even death in peanut-allergic individuals." (3) "Peanuts, tree nuts, seafood and seeds, as well as milk and eggs, can cause anaphylaxis in highly allergic children, and reexposure to such foods presents the risk of life-threatening reactions." [allergenic to susceptible individuals]

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29]. (2) http://www.jimmunol.org/cgi/content/full/169/2/882 [Cited 2009 September 30]. (3) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9337759 [Cited 2009 September 30].

4.08

No evidence (1) Fruit, an indehiscent legume up to 10 cm long; seeds 1–5, from less than 1 cm long x 0.5 cm thick to 3.5 cm x 1.5 cm weighing less than weight less than 0.2 g to over 2.0 g (2) Seed set below ground limits long-distance dispersal.

4.09

(1) "Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) may have one or more periods during development when low solar radiation intensity is particularly detrimental to high yield. The present studies were conducted in the field to determine the effect of shade on vegetative growth, partitioning of assimilates and yield components of peanut. In a 2-year experiment, 75% shade was applied for 7, 10, 14, or 21 day periods during flowering, pegging, podding, and maturing phases. The objective was to determine which reproductive phase was most sensitive to low solar radiation intensity. Flower number, peg development, pod formation, and dry matter accumulation and partitioning were measured at regular sampling intervals. Shade during the peak flowering period reduced the number of flowers per plant and inhibited peg formation. Shade during the pegging and podding phases reduced total peg and pod number and reduced pod dry weight. Shade during the maturing phase reduced seed fill as shown by reduced shelling percentage and a lower number of fruits achieving mature pod status. On the average, over all stages, 75% reduction of light intensity decreased the growth rate of vegetative parts by 85%, the reproductive growth rate by 67%, and the total biomass growth rate by 67%. Shade prior to podding increased partitioning to vegetative growth, by 20%, whereas shade during the podding phase (83 to 104 days) increased dry matter partitioning to pods by 127%. Seventy-five percent reduction in solar radiation intensity reduced yield of Florunner peanuts significantly only when the duration was for 14 or 21 day periods. Podding was the phase in which yield was most sensitive to shade with a 30% reduction in fruit yield from shade during 83 to 104 days of age. The maturing phase was next in sensitivity to shade, which decreased yield primarily by decreasing seed fill in existing fruits. Twenty-one days of shade at flowering did not reduce final fruit yield, since the plants had time to recover from the loss of active flowers and subsequently bear flowers and produce a normal pod load." (2) Not shade tolerant.

(1) Hang, A.N., McCloud, D.E., Boote, K.J., Duncan, W.G. 1984. Shade effects on growth, partitioning, and yield components of peanuts. Crop Science. 24:109-115. (2) http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/pcplantdb/showthing.php?BOTNAME=Arachis+hypogaea[Cited 2009 September 30].

4.10

(1) Grows on light, friable, well-drained sandy loams, but will grow in heavier soils. Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist through Tropical Thorn to Wet Forest Life Zones. (2) Peanut grows best in slightly acidic soils with a pH of 6.0 to 6.5, but a range of 5.5 to 7.0 is acceptable.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29]. (2) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/peanut.html [Cited 2009 September 29].

4.11

(1) The peanut plant can be erect or prostrate (6 to 24 in. tall or more) with a well developed taproot and many lateral roots and nodules.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/peanut.html [Cited 2009 September 29].

4.12

No evidence. (1) The peanut plant can be erect or prostrate (6 to 24 in. tall or more) with a well developed taproot and many lateral roots and nodules. Herbaceous.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/peanut.html [Cited 2009 September 29].

5.01

(1) Peanut is a self-pollinating, indeterminate, annual, herbaceous legume

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/peanut.html [Cited 2009 September 29].

5.02

(1) Fabaceae

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/peanut.html [Cited 2009 September 29].

5.03

(1) Peanut is a self-pollinating, indeterminate, annual, herbaceous legume. Since it is a legume, peanut can biologically fix its own nitrogen.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/peanut.html [Cited 2009 September 29].

5.04

(1) The peanut plant can be erect or prostrate (6 to 24 in. tall or more) with a well developed taproot and many lateral roots and nodules.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/peanut.html [Cited 2009 September 29].

6.01

(1) Arachis hypogaea is only cultivated.

(1) http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?3785 [Cited 2009 September 29].

6.02

(1) All commercial peanuts are propagated from seed

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29].

6.03

(1) In addition to the cultivated peanut, there are wild Arachis species known to be cross-compatible with cultivated peanuts and known to possess resistance to pests and diseases, including early and late leafspot and spidermites. (2) Arachis hypogaea are generally considered to be self-pollinated, but natural hybrids due to outcrossing have been observed.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29]. (2) Nigam, S.N., Rao, V.R., Gibbons, R.W., 1983. Utilization of Natural Hybrids in the Improvement of Groundnuts ( Arachis hypogaea). Experimental Agriculture 19, 355-359.

6.04

(1) Self-pollinating, occasionally outcrossed by bees. (2) Natural self-pollination within the closed keel is the rule.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29]. (2) Smith, B.W., 1950. Arachis hypogaea. Aerial Flower and Subterranean Fruit. American Journal of Botany 37, 802-815.

6.05

(1) Self-pollinating, occasionally outcrossed by bees (2) Natural self-pollination is the rule. Insects including domestic bees do visit the flowers and rare cross-pollination probably occurs.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29]. (2) Smith, B.W., 1950. Arachis hypogaea. Aerial Flower and Subterranean Fruit. American Journal of Botany 37, 802-815.

6.06

No evidence of reproduction by vegetative fragmentation.

6.07

(1) Annual. Flowering under 30 days to over 40 days. Fruit matures 90–150+ days.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29].

7.01

(1) Fruit, an indehiscent legume up to 10 cm long; seeds 1–5, from less than 1 cm long x 0.5 cm thick to 3.5 cm x 1.5 cm weighing less than weight less than 0.2 g to over 2.0 g (2) Seed set below ground limits long-distance dispersal. The perimeter of an Arachis population may remain quite stable for decades. Dispersal in Arachis can only occur vegetatively through spread by rhizomes or stolons, or when seed is transported in eroded soil during heavy rains or floods. (3) Seeds are produced below ground level.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29]. (2) http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=R6Fo-8S2owkC&oi=fnd&pg=PA19&dq=arachis+hypogaea+%2B+%22dispersal%22&ots=cXlR2aKZ27&sig=
0PTJzvZMdJD1NS8rAAB2_bo0skw#v=onepage&q=arachis%20hypogaea%20%2B%20%22dispersal%22&f=false [CIted 2009 September 29]. (3) http://data.kew.org/sid/SidServlet?ID=2083&Num=AuD [Cited 2009 September 30].

7.02

(1) "The cultivated peanut or groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), originated in South America (Bolivia and adjoining countries) and is now grown throughout the tropical an warm temperate regions of the, world. This crop was grown widely by native peoples of the New World at the time of European expansion in the sixteenth century and was subsequently taken to Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Islands. Peanut was introduced to the present southeastern United States during colonial times. Peanut, an important oil and food crop, is currently grown on approximately 42 million acres worldwide. It is the third major oilseed of the world next to soybean and cotton. India, China, and the United States have been the leading producers for over 25 years and grow about 70% of the world crop>"

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/peanut.html [Cited 2009 September 29].

7.03

(1) Fruit, an indehiscent legume up to 10 cm long; seeds 1–5, from less than 1 cm long x 0.5 cm thick to 3.5 cm x 1.5 cm weighing less than weight less than 0.2 g to over 2.0 g (2) Seed set below ground limits long-distance dispersal. The perimeter of an Arachis population may remain quite stable for decades. Dispersal in Arachis can only occur vegetatively through spread by rhizomes or stolons, or when seed is transported in eroded soil during heavy rains or floods. (3) Seeds are produced below ground level.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29]. (2) http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=R6Fo-8S2owkC&oi=fnd&pg=PA19&dq=arachis+hypogaea+%2B+%22dispersal%22&ots=cXlR2aKZ27&sig=
0PTJzvZMdJD1NS8rAAB2_bo0skw#v=onepage&q=arachis%20hypogaea%20%2B%20%22dispersal%22&f=false [CIted 2009 September 29]. (3) http://data.kew.org/sid/SidServlet?ID=2083&Num=AuD [Cited 2009 September 30].

7.04

(1) Fruit, an indehiscent legume up to 10 cm long; seeds 1–5, from less than 1 cm long x 0.5 cm thick to 3.5 cm x 1.5 cm weighing less than weight less than 0.2 g to over 2.0 g (2) Seed set below ground limits long-distance dispersal. The perimeter of an Arachis population may remain quite stable for decades. Dispersal in Arachis can only occur vegetatively through spread by rhizomes or stolons, or when seed is transported in eroded soil during heavy rains or floods. (3) Seeds are produced below ground level.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29]. (2) http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=R6Fo-8S2owkC&oi=fnd&pg=PA19&dq=arachis+hypogaea+%2B+%22dispersal%22&ots=cXlR2aKZ27&sig=
0PTJzvZMdJD1NS8rAAB2_bo0skw#v=onepage&q=arachis%20hypogaea%20%2B%20%22dispersal%22&f=false [CIted 2009 September 29]. (3) http://data.kew.org/sid/SidServlet?ID=2083&Num=AuD [Cited 2009 September 30].

7.05

[No evidence of dispersal by water, but see reference #2].(1) Fruit, an indehiscent legume up to 10 cm long; seeds 1–5, from less than 1 cm long x 0.5 cm thick to 3.5 cm x 1.5 cm weighing less than weight less than 0.2 g to over 2.0 g (2) Seed set below ground limits long-distance dispersal. The perimeter of an Arachis population may remain quite stable for decades. Dispersal in Arachis can only occur vegetatively through spread by rhizomes or stolons, or when seed is transported in eroded soil during heavy rains or floods. (3) Seeds are produced below ground level.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29]. (2) http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=R6Fo-8S2owkC&oi=fnd&pg=PA19&dq=arachis+hypogaea+%2B+%22dispersal%22&ots=cXlR2aKZ27&sig=
0PTJzvZMdJD1NS8rAAB2_bo0skw#v=onepage&q=arachis%20hypogaea%20%2B%20%22dispersal%22&f=false [CIted 2009 September 29]. (3) http://data.kew.org/sid/SidServlet?ID=2083&Num=AuD [Cited 2009 September 30].

7.06

(1) Fruit, an indehiscent legume up to 10 cm long; seeds 1–5, from less than 1 cm long x 0.5 cm thick to 3.5 cm x 1.5 cm weighing less than weight less than 0.2 g to over 2.0 g (2) Seed set below ground limits long-distance dispersal. The perimeter of an Arachis population may remain quite stable for decades. Dispersal in Arachis can only occur vegetatively through spread by rhizomes or stolons, or when seed is transported in eroded soil during heavy rains or floods. (3) Seeds are produced below ground level.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29]. (2) http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=R6Fo-8S2owkC&oi=fnd&pg=PA19&dq=arachis+hypogaea+%2B+%22dispersal%22&ots=cXlR2aKZ27&sig=
0PTJzvZMdJD1NS8rAAB2_bo0skw#v=onepage&q=arachis%20hypogaea%20%2B%20%22dispersal%22&f=false [CIted 2009 September 29]. (3) http://data.kew.org/sid/SidServlet?ID=2083&Num=AuD [Cited 2009 September 30].

7.07

(1) Fruit, an indehiscent legume up to 10 cm long; seeds 1–5, from less than 1 cm long x 0.5 cm thick to 3.5 cm x 1.5 cm weighing less than weight less than 0.2 g to over 2.0 g (2) Seed set below ground limits long-distance dispersal. The perimeter of an Arachis population may remain quite stable for decades. Dispersal in Arachis can only occur vegetatively through spread by rhizomes or stolons, or when seed is transported in eroded soil during heavy rains or floods. (3) Seeds are produced below ground level.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29]. (2) http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=R6Fo-8S2owkC&oi=fnd&pg=PA19&dq=arachis+hypogaea+%2B+%22dispersal%22&ots=cXlR2aKZ27&sig=
0PTJzvZMdJD1NS8rAAB2_bo0skw#v=onepage&q=arachis%20hypogaea%20%2B%20%22dispersal%22&f=false [Cited 2009 September 29]. (3) http://data.kew.org/sid/SidServlet?ID=2083&Num=AuD [Cited 2009 September 30].

7.08

Unknown. (1) Fruit, an indehiscent legume up to 10 cm long; seeds 1–5, from less than 1 cm long x 0.5 cm thick to 3.5 cm x 1.5 cm weighing less than weight less than 0.2 g to over 2.0 g (2) Seed set below ground limits long-distance dispersal. The perimeter of an Arachis population may remain quite stable for decades. Dispersal in Arachis can only occur vegetatively through spread by rhizomes or stolons, or when seed is transported in eroded soil during heavy rains or floods. (3) Seeds are produced below ground level.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29]. (2) http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=R6Fo-8S2owkC&oi=fnd&pg=PA19&dq=arachis+hypogaea+%2B+%22dispersal%22&ots=cXlR2aKZ27&sig=
0PTJzvZMdJD1NS8rAAB2_bo0skw#v=onepage&q=arachis%20hypogaea%20%2B%20%22dispersal%22&f=false [Cited 2009 September 29]. (3) http://data.kew.org/sid/SidServlet?ID=2083&Num=AuD [Cited 2009 September 30].

8.01

(1) Yields have increased remarkably in the United States and other countries since 1951 and now range from 2000 to 6000 kg/ha. (2) Based on plant size in pictures seed production is < 1000/m2 (3) Based on number of fruit per plant seed production is < 1000/m2.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Arachis_hypogaea.html [Cited 2009 September 29]. (2) http://img1.photographersdirect.com/img/15486/wm/pd1288143.jpg [Cited 2009 September 29]. (3) http://www.botanik.uni-karlsruhe.de/garten/fotos-knoch/Arachis%20hypogaea%20Erdnuss%201.jpg [Cited 2009 September 29].

8.02

Unknown (1) Peanut saved for seed must be protected from insect pests and rodents as well as from high temperatures and high relative humidities ( 70%). Peanut is usually stored in the form of unshelled nuts. Seven to eight month storage is usually required for peanut used as seed, and those intended for food uses can be stored until the start of next harvesting season. Seed harvested from Minnesota research plots usually tested over 90% germination. Seed retained viability longer when stored in the pod than when shelled. Seed stored with 5% moisture content lost viability more slowly than seed with 8% moisture, but relative humidity must be less than 50% to maintain such a low moisture level. In a storage trial in Minnesota, shelled seed maintained viability for three years when kept frozen (32°F) and for one year in a heated (68°F) office. (2) Orthodox seeds. Seeds are safely stored in liquid nitrogen; no problem for long-term storage under IPGRI preferred conditions (SSLR); seeds tolerate desiccation to 1.2% mc, LMCL=1.95%, Cw= 4.089; no loss in viability after 4 years ultra-dry storage at 20°C with 2% mc (SSLR); long-term storage at ICRISAT (3) Shelled groundnuts are fragile and are exposed to various agents that cause physical, chemical and biological deterioration. They rapidly lose their seed viability when stored under natural conditions.

(1) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/peanut.html [Cited 2009 September 29]. (2) http://data.kew.org/sid/SidServlet?ID=2083&Num=AuD [Cited 2009 September 30]. (3) http://www.icrisat.org/Publications/EBooksOnlinePublications/Publications-2008/Ground_seedproduction_English.pdf [Cited 2009 September 30].

8.03

Unknown. [However, preemergence and postemergence herbicides are use to control weeds in Arachis hypogaea crops]. (1) Flumioxazin and norflurazon were used to control broad-leaved weeds in peanut crops. Arachis injury was observed at one location; however yields were not reduced. (2) "Field experiments were conducted in 1988 and 1989 to evaluate imazethapyr for weed control in peanuts. Imazethapyr was applied PRE or POST at 3, 5, or 7 weeks after crop emergence (WAE) at 0.071 kg ai ha⁻¹. Imazethapyr applied PRE controlled common lambsquarters 85%, prickly sida 92%, and a mixture of entireleaf, ivyleaf, pitted, and tall morningglory species 77%. Morningglory control was at least 91% with imazethapyr plus metolachlor PRE followed by imazethapyr plus 2,4-DB or imazethapyr plus acifluorfen at 3, 5, or 7 WAE. Yields from systems that included metolachlor plus imazethapyr PRE followed by imazethapyr plus acifluorfen, imazethapyr plus 2,4-DB, or acifluorfen plus 2,4-DB at 3 WAE were greater than yields from the handweeded check. All systems with imazethapyr plus metolachlor PRE followed by any POST treatment except imazethapyr plus acifluorfen 7 WAE provided net returns equivalent to the herbicide standard of metolachlor PRE and acifluorfen and bentazon plus 2,4-DB 3 WAE. All systems except imazethapyr PRE provided greater net returns than the handweeded weed-free check.". (3) Many herbicides are registered for use in peanut. These include Balan (PPI), Basagran (POST), Blazer (POST), 2,4-DB (POST), Dual (PPI or PRE), alachlor (Lasso and other names) (PPI, PRE), POAST (POST), PROWL (PPI), and SONALAN (PPI). Tank mixes of several of these products can be applied to broaden the spectrum of weeds controlled. Consult the product label for information on rates, tank mixes, harvest intervals, etc.

(1) Askew, S.D., Wilcut, J.W., Cranmer, J.R. 1999. Weed management in peanut (Arachis hypogaea) with Flumioxazin preemergence. Weed Technology. 13:594-598. (2) Wilcut, J.W., Walls, F.R., Horton, D.N. 1991. Weed control, yield, and net returns using Imazethapyr in peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L.). Weed Science 39:238-242. (3) http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/peanut.html [Cited 2009 September 30].

8.04

(1) Cultivation can damage Arachis hypogaea and enhance soil-borne disease problems.

(1) York, A.C., Wilcut, J.W., Swann, C.W., Jordan, D.L., Robert, F. 1995. Efficacy of Imazethapyr in peanut (Arachis hypogaea) as affected by time of application. Weed Science 43 (1):107-116.

8.05

Unknown