Research directed by C. Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service

Information on Risk Assessments
Original risk assessment

Anacardium occidentale

Answer

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

y

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

n

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

y

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

y

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

4.1

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

n

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

n

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

n

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

3

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

n

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

0

Source

Notes

1.01

no evidence

1.02

http://www.museums.org.za/bio/plants/anacardiaceae/anacardium_occidentale.htm 2)http://209.204.216.125/cashew.htm

Cashews have spread widely in the Indian Ocean region and have become naturalised in seashore habitats. Possibly naturalized in Jamaica. 2)It was "discovered" by Europeans and first recorded in 1578, and from there take to India, then to East Africa where it soon became naturalized.

1.03

no evidence

2.01

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/var/apache/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?3060 (05 December 2001)

Native range: Southern America: Brazil; Colombia; French Guiana; Guyana; Suriname; Venezuela

2.02

2.03

tropical only, cannot stand cool environments. Fruiting requires hot, dry season. Elevation range < 850 m

2.04

USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN). [Online Database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available: http://www.ars-grin.gov/var/apache/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?3060 (05 December 2001)

Native range: Southern America: Brazil; Colombia; French Guiana; Guyana; Suriname; Venezuela

2.05

(1) Le, H. T.; Hancock, J. F.; Ton That Trinh (1998) The fruit crops of Vietnam: introduced species and their native relatives. Fruit Varieties Journal, 1998, Vol.52, No.3, pp.158-168, 29 ref.
(2) Lefebvre, A.(1973) Review of research on cashew and other fruit species at the Majunga Station (IFAC), Madagascar, from 1962 to 1973. (Synthese des travaux de recherches sur l'anacardier et autres especes fruitieres a la Station de Majunga (IFAC), Madagascar, de 1962 a 1973). Fruits, 1973, Vol.28, No.7/8, pp.535-544
(3) Blaikie, S. J.; Chacko, E. K.; Lu, P.; Müller, W. J. (2001) Productivity and water relations of field-grown cashew: a comparison of sprinkler and drip irrigation. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 2001, Vol.41, No.5, pp.663-673, 31 ref.
(4) Hegde, M. V.; Hegde, R. V.; Sulikeri, G. S. (1999) Evaluation of cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale L.) cultivars under rainfed conditions of northern Karnataka. Annals of Biology (Ludhiana), 1999, Vol.15, No.2, pp.263-265, 6 ref.
(5) Fianu,

(1) Vietnam (2) Madagascar (3) Australia (4) India (5) Gahna (6)Tanzania (7) South Africa (8) Kenya (98) Papua New Guinea (10) China (11) Puerto Rico & Virgin Islands (12) Mozambique

3.01

see 1.02

3.02

no evidence

3.03

no evidence

3.04

1)http://www.newafrica.co.uk/cashew/articles.asp

no evidence that this species is considered a pest in Africa or elsewhere, or has been targeted for control or any sort. 1) It is estimated that Mozambique has 26 million cashew trees but these are dying at the rate of 1 million a year (Deloitte & Touche 1997). Trees are badly affected by pests and disease.

3.05

no evidence

4.01

Montealegre, J. C.; Childers, N. F.; Sargent, S. A.; Barros, L. de M.; Alves, R. E. (1999) Cashew (Anacardium occidentale , L.) nut and apple: a review of current production and handling recommendations. Fruit Varieties Journal, 1999, Vol.53, No.1, pp.2-9, 27 ref. p.2

smooth tree

4.02

John, J.; Nair, A. M. (1998) Allelopathic effect of leaf litter of multipurpose trees on crops. Allelopathy Journal, 1998, Vol.5, No.2, pp.191-194, 8 ref.

A study was conducted to investigate the allelopathic effects of accumulated tree leaf litter on the germination and growth of agricultural crops. The leaf litter of mature trees of Eucalyptus tereticornis , Ailanthus triphysa , Bombax malabaricum [B. ceiba] , Myristica fragrans , Artocarpus hirsutus , Thespesia populnea and Anacardium occidentale was collected, cleaned and powdered coarsely. The powdered leaf litter was mixed with sand in the ratio of 1:10 and placed in pots with 25 seeds of either rice cv. Jyothi or Vigna unguiculata cv. Kankamony. Germination and seedling growth were assessed 7 days after sowing. The leaf litter of all tree species inhibited the germination of rice, the maximum with A. triphysa and the LEAST with A. occidentale (this methodology has questionable relevance to natural or agricultural situations. Powedered green leaves do not occur naturally).

4.03

no evidence

4.04

no evidence

4.05

no evidence of poisioning in animals.

4.06

Mohapatra, L. N.; Satapathy, C. R. (1999) Seasonal incidence and bionomics of tea mosquito bug Helopeltis antonii on cashew. Indian Journal of Entomology, 1999, Vol.61, No.4, pp.312-319, 12 ref.

Helopeltis antonii is also a pest of coccoa and guava.

4.07

Evans, F. J.; Schmidt, R. J. (1980) Plants and plant products that induce contact dermatitis. Planta Medica, 1980, Vol.38, No.4, pp.289-316, 182 ref.

A review. A detailed account of the plants causing dermatitis due to various types of compounds is given. (a) Mechanical irritants such as easily detachable rough hairs (Echium spp.) barbed bristles (Opuntia ficus-indica) and minute needle-shaped oxalate crystals (Narcissus bulb scales); (b) Stinging nettles (Urtica spp.); (c) Phototoxic compounds the furocoumarins in plants such as Dictamnus albus, Ficus carica and Pastinaca sativa; (d) Contact allergens urushiols from, for example, Anacardium occidentale and Ginkgo biloba, sesquiterpene lactones from Gaillardia spp. and Artemisia spp. or some quinones (e.g. primin from Primula obconica leaves); and (e) Primary irritants from such plants as Euphorbia spp. and Thuja plicata.

4.08

no evidence

4.09

Balasimha, D. (1991) Photosynthetic characteristics of cashew trees. Photosynthetica, 1991, Vol.25, No.3, pp.419-423, 15 ref.

AB: The net photosynthetic rate (P N) and related characters were measured in field-grown 15-year-old trees. P N of leaves could be measured after 8 days of development and reached maximum levels after completion of leaf expansion. There was no significant difference in P N between leaves at various positions in a single flush. P N was much lower in the shaded leaves than in the sunlit ones. It was linearly related with stomatal conductance and transpiration rate. These results and the high saturation irradiance (1200-1400 micro mol m-2 s-1) indicated that competition for radiant energy was more important than any other single environmental variable for the photosynthetic capacity. The CO2 compensation concentration was between 80 and 100 cm3/m3, and the ratio of internal and external CO2 concentrations, 0.80-0.86, indicated the C3 nature of cashew trees.

4.1

(1) Venugopal, K.; Khader, K. B. A. (1991) Effect of soil and climate on the productivity of cashew. Indian Cashew Journal, 1991, Vol.20, No.3, pp.19-24, 18 ref.
(2) Falade, J. A. (1984) Variability in soils and cashew tree size. Journal of Plantation Crops, 1984, Vol.12, No.1, pp.30-37, 7 ref. 3)http://www.newafrica.co.uk/cashew/articlepg.asp?ID=1823

(1) The results of this review indicate that the higher potential production of cashew in various states of India is related to the even distribution of post-monsoon rain during plant growth and the pre-flowering phase (Sep. to Nov.). The best soil types are brown forest soils or deep well-drained laterite soils with a high water-holding capacity and rich in inorganic matter. Eroded laterites and coastal sandy soils are unsuitable and less productive. Saline or alkaline soil and soil water conditions are not favourable for the crop and the cyclonic storms along the east coast of India which result in heavy rainfall, floods and waterlogging conditions seriously affect the productivity of cashew. In regions where rainfall is insufficient, irrigation with the use of appropriate soil conservation and fertility management practices is recommended. (2)Tree growth, as affected by the soil type, was studied in 3 ecological localities. Profile pits were dug, soil samples collected for analysis and tree girth and canop

4.11

Montealegre, J. C.; Childers, N. F.; Sargent, S. A.; Barros, L. de M.; Alves, R. E. (1999) Cashew (Anacardium occidentale , L.) nut and apple: a review of current production and handling recommendations. Fruit Varieties Journal, 1999, Vol.53, No.1, pp.2-9, 27 ref. p.2

tree up to 10m tall

4.12

no evidence

5.01

5.02

5.03

5.04

6.01

no evidence

6.02

Nagabhushanam, S. (1981) A study on germination value (GV) in cashew (Anacardium occidentale L) sown at different depths. Malaysian Agricultural Journal, 1981, Vol.53, No.2, pp.113-115, 3 ref.

Germination value (explained) is a term used as an index of germination rate and percentage. The germination values of seeds sown 3, 6 and 9 cm deep were 112.5, 80.8 and 51.2%, respectively. The germination percentage at all depths was about 70%, and germination was complete in about 25 days. Seeds sown at a depth of 3 cm germinated with their cotyledons on the surface, and about 60% of them were damaged by birds or rodents; of those sown at 6 cm, only 26% emerged with their cotyledons on the surface, and those sown at 9 cm retained their cotyledons below ground.

6.03

6.04

Paiva, J. R. de; Moura Barros, L. de; Crisóstomo, J. R.; Araújo, J. P. P. de; Rossetti, A. G.; Cavalcante, J. J. V.; Felipe, E. M. (1998) Inbreeding depression in early dwarf type progenies of cashew var. nanum . (Depressão por endogamia em progênies de cajueiro anão precoce var. nanum). Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira, 1998, Vol.33, No.4, pp.425-431, 13 ref.

With a view to estimating the inbreeding depression rate in cashew plants, data on vegetative characters and yield traits of 12-, 18- and 29-month-old dwarf cashew progenies which had been obtained via selfing, open pollination or controlled pollination of CCP76 and CCP1001. Germination percentage was high in all groups of plants (81% to 94%), with the exception of self pollinated seeds of CCP1001 which gave only 63% germination. The damaging effects of endogamy were more pronounced for yield and number of seeds. Seed yield per plant was decreased by 37.6% in the CCP76 clone and by 48% in the CCP1001 clone; number of seeds per plant was decreased by 25.3 and 43.3% in CCP76 and CCP1001, respectively.

6.05

Freitas, B. M.; Paxton, R. J. (1996) The role of wind and insects in cashew (Anacardium occidentale ) pollination in NE Brazil. Journal of Agricultural Science, 1996, Vol.126, No.2, pp.319-326  

The pollination requirements of A. occidentale were studied in NE Brazil. Bagging and caging experiments, controlled hand-pollination and emasculation of flowers, showed that wind plays little part in cashew pollination. Cashew is self-fertile, although only pollen from the large stamen, either from male or hermaphrodite flowers, can effect pollination; pollen from staminoids is ineffective. A total of 2400 panicles was observed for insect visitors during the 3 months of cashew flowering. Honey bees (Apis mellifera ) were the most frequent visitors, being present in 6.25% of the panicles. Ants (Camponotus sp.) were seen in 5.25% of panicles, and the other insect species observed included 5 other bee species, wasps and butterflies. Honey bees foraged for nectar in the cashew plantation throughout the day, with a peak in abundance from 09.00 h to 12.00 h; no pollen collection was observed. Honey bees touched both anther and stigma during foraging and it is probable that they are the main pollinators of cashew i

6.06

no evidence

6.07

Montealegre, J. C.; Childers, N. F.; Sargent, S. A.; Barros, L. de M.; Alves, R. E. (1999) Cashew (Anacardium occidentale , L.) nut and apple: a review of current production and handling recommendations. Fruit Varieties Journal, 1999, Vol.53, No.1, pp.2-9, 27 ref. p.6 2)http://www.newafrica.co.uk/cashew/articlepg.asp?ID=1822 3)http://www.museums.org.za/bio/plants/anacardiaceae/anacardium_occidentale.htm

Seedlings bear fruits after third years (starting from seedlings) 2)cashew trees must be five years old before they produce 3)A plant can grow from seed to seed producer within three years

7.01

7.02

grown for fruitsand nuts

7.03

Nut is one of the products

7.04

7.05

7.06

Sanaiotti, T. M.; Magnusson, W. E. (1995) Effects of annual fires on the production of fleshy fruits eaten by birds in a Brazilian Amazonian savanna. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 1995, Vol.11, No.1, pp.53-65, 37 ref.

The study evaluated the fleshy fruits from tree and shrub-layer species eaten by birds (e.g. Protium heptaphyllum , Anacardium occidentale , Bellucia dichotoma , Eugenia biflora , amasonia arborea , Smilax santaremensis and Chomella ribesioides ).

7.07

7.08

Although it has fleshy false fruits that attract birds, the seeds are located outside the false fruits and apparently are not consumed. Outer coating of seed is toxic..

8.01

unlikely, with large false fruit that bear only one seed

8.02

Montealegre, J. C.; Childers, N. F.; Sargent, S. A.; Barros, L. de M.; Alves, R. E. (1999) Cashew (Anacardium occidentale , L.) nut and apple: a review of current production and handling recommendations. Fruit Varieties Journal, 1999, Vol.53, No.1, pp.2-9, 27 ref. p.5

100% before 4 months of storage, 95% in 6 months; degraded rapidly after 6 months; 20% after 12 month

8.03

no evidence

8.04

no evidence, unlikely

8.05