Alstonia macrophylla Wallich ex G. Don Family - Apocynaceae. Common Names(s) - deviltree. Synonym(s) - Alstonia batino Blanco; Alstonia oblongifolia Merr; Alstonia pangkorensis King & Gamble

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

n

0

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

9

Notes

Source

1.01

No Evidence

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)"Southeastern Asia (from Thailand) into Malesia (to the Moluccas); cultivated elsewhere" (2) Native: * ASIA-TEMPERATE China: China - Guangdong [s.], Yunnan [s.] * ASIA-TROPICAL; Indo-China: Thailand; Vietnam; Malesia: Indonesia - Celebes, Moluccas, Sumatra; Philippines

(1)Smith, A. C. 1988. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, HI. (2)Alstonia macrophylla information from NPGS/GRIN. Available at http://www.ars-grin.gov [Accessed 28 April 2008].

2.02

2.03

(1)In undisturbed and disturbed sites up to 500 m altitude. Quite often found near the coast, just behind mangrove forests, but also in mixed dipterocarp forests. (2)These plants don't like cold weather, therefore in the Spring it is best to set them outside only when the temperatures are above 15°C. (3)Climatic amplitude (estimates) - Altitude range: 5 - 1000 m - Mean annual rainfall: 1700 - 3750 mm - Rainfall regime: bimodal; uniform - Dry season duration: 3 - 0 months - Mean annual temperature: 20 - 28ºC - Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 25 - 40ºC - Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 15 - 20ºC - Absolute minimum temperature: > 8ºC

(1)http://www.nationaalherbarium.nl/sungaiwain/Apocynaceae/Alstonia_macrophylla.htm [Accessed 28 April 2008] (2)http://www.gardening.eu/arc/plants/Masts/Alstonia-macrophylla-Wallich-ex-G.-Don/2622/ [Accessed 28 April 2008] (3)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.04

(1)Latitude between 20°N and 10°S List of countries Asia Bangladesh natural and planted Bhutan natural and planted India natural and planted Indonesia natural and planted Malaysia natural and planted Philippines natural and planted Sri Lanka natural and planted Thailand natural and planted

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

2.05

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

3.01

(1)It has recently become naturalized on Hawai‘i. Specimens det. by A.J.M. Leeuwenberg. Material examined. HAWAI‘I: Pepe‘ekeo, mauka of Highway 19, directly across from Hilo Processing Co. quarry site, near entrance to D. Carlsmith estate, in pasture with exotics such as guava and rose apple, ca. 550 ft., 25 Feb. 1991, Takiue s.n. (BISH); Hilo, invasive weed tree on various substrates, 76 m, March 1993, Paul s.n. (BISH); South Hilo Dist., Waiakea, Keaukaha Military Reservation, along jeep road through mixed native/alien forest, occasional, 60 ft., 5 July 1996, Herbst & Hopper 9783a (BISH). (2)Although grown in botanical gardens on the islands of Kaua‘i and O‘ahu and sparingly cultivated in gardens on the island of Hawai‘i, the species had become naturalized only in the Waiäkea, Hilo, and Pepe‘ekeo areas of Hawai‘i Island (Wagner et al., 1997: 51). The following collection is the first documented naturalized plant on the island of O‘ahu. (3) United States: Florida: Dade [Miami-Dade] County. U.S.D.A. Subtropical Horticultural Research Station, Chapman Field, off Old Cutler Road, Miami. Disturbed pineland, many exotic and hammock species (not burned for quite some time), w/ Metopium, Terminalia, Smilax, Vitis, Melia, Syzygium, Albizia, Jasminum, Lantana, Bumelia, Santalum, Trema, Alstonia, Schinus, Pithecellobium, Casuarina, Acacia. Occasional escape from cultivation, definitely naturalized. Milky sap. Small trees. (4)Abstract: Four additional species of introduced tropical trees have naturalized in Dade County, Florida. The species are Alstonia macrophylla (Apocynaceae), Pittosporum pentandrum (Pittosporaceae), Ixora arborea (Rubiaceae), and Harpullia arborea (Sapindaceae). Brief descriptions, herbaria records, ornamental use, and potential spread are discussed.

(1)Wagner, W. L., R. K. Shannon and D. R. Herbst. 1997. Contributions to the flora of Hawai‘i. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Miller, Scott, E., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 1996. Part 1: Articles. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 48:51-65. (2)Herbst, D. R., G. W. Staples and C. T. Imada. 2004. New Hawaiian plant records for 2002-2003. In: Evenhuis, Neal L. and Eldredge, Lucius G., eds. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2003. Part 1: Articles. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 78:3-12. (3)FLAS accession number: 174674. Available from www.flmnh.ufl.edu [Accessed 28 April 2008] (4) Pascarella, J. B. 1994. Additions to the flora of south Florida: Four new species of naturalized tropical trees. Florida Scientist Volume 57(4): 173-176.

3.02

(1)The woody invasive species that are very problematic in at least one country of the Western Indian Ocean region [Seychelles: Alstonia macrophylla listed under category of "most problematic invasive"]…Alstonia macrophylla also able to invade Inselbergs (Seychelles)...Rocky granitic outcrops with a very high endemism and an abundance of exotics below 10% [This habitat is characterized among those "Habitat types that show a high resistance to invasions (low invasibility), and the few exotic species that are able to invade them."] (2)"Still, the majority of alien species have established only in confined habitats, where they can form a dominant component of the vegetation, notably (in descending order of their prominence): Tabebuia pallida, Sandoricum indicum and Alstonia macrophylla."..."Though the very invasive Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Alstonia macrophylla are able to colonise Glacis habitats, very high degrees of native rejuventation (mostly >66%) suggest that these habitats are not seriously endangered by invasive alien plants in the near future" [This suggests that Alstonia is not having a lasting environmental impact on native habitat in Seychelles] (3)The Florida Nurserymen and Growers Association (FNGA) is urging Florida’s nursery and landscape industry professionals to phase out production, sale and use of 34 plants that are invasive in natural areas [Alstonia macrophylla included in list] (4)CATEGORY II: Invasive exotics that have increased in abundance or frequency but have not yet altered Florida plant communities to the extent shown by Category I species. These species may become ranked Category I, if ecological damage is demonstrated [Alstonia macrophylla] (4)Alstonia macrophylla (Bois jaune) and Tabebuia pallida (Calice du pape): Two rather recently introduced species previously much used for forest plantations, Alstonia macrophylla (Bois jaune) and Tabebuia pallida (Calice du pape), have turned out to be aggressive invaders and are now rapidly spreading in many natural habitats at low and intermediate altitudes. Bois jaune is one of the introduced species, which invades glacis areas successfully. (5)Alstonia macrophylla categorized as germinating from a seed bank and functioning as a post-hurricane "canopy-layer thief" in Florida [Table 6]. A canopy-layer thief is described as one that "Regrows new branches from damaged standing trunk faster than damaged, standing native trees" [Table 7] (6)In heavily exploited and degraded forests of lowland of southwestern Sri Lanka Alstonia macrophylla (Apocynaceae) is commonly found in large gaps but appear to be absent from unlogged forest. (7)The tree Alstonia macrophylla, although currently restricted to a few of the small islands and rarely found in forest vegetation, showed potential for becoming an aggressive invader where it was present. It exhibited a rapid natural increase in dry, exposed environments on scrub-covered hillsides on North and glacis on Frégate...Other species (notably Alstonia macrophylla) are more recent introductions but current behaviour (number of propagules produced, speed of growth) suggests that they could become important problem species in the future. (8)Exotic species growing on the hills should be removed and replaced with native species such as Ficus spp. The most invasive species (e.g. Alstonia macrophylla) should be targeted. (9)Abstract: This paper discusses the strategies for controlling invasive species in Seychelles and is divided into 2 parts. The first part takes a plant-species perspective and discusses the management of single species, following the management scheme which comprises: priority species for control measures (examples include Alstonia macrophylla, Paraserianthes falcataria, Cinnamomum verum [Cinnamomum zeylanicum], Psidium cattleianum, Syzygium jambos and Clidemia hirta), priority species for close monitoring (Dillenia suffruticosa, Litsea glutinosa, Memecylon caeruleum and Ardisia crenata) and priority species for border control (Rubus alceifolius and Ligustrum robustum). In the second part, the possible milestones for the control of invasive species are discussed, including mid-term and long-term solutions. (10)Alstonia macrophylla, Alstonia scholaris: Both species Invade hammocks, pinelands and disturbed sites; leaves are reportedly toxic to eat; A. macrophylla is becoming widespread in Dade county.

(1)Kueffer, C., P. Vos, C. Lavergne and J. Mauremootoo. 2004. WOODY INVASIVE SPECIES IN THE WESTERN INDIAN OCEAN: A
REGIONAL ASSESSMENT. Forest Genetic Resources No. 31: 25-30. (2)Fleischmann, K. 1997. Invasion of Alien Woody Plants on the Islands of Mahé and Silhouette, Seychelles. Journal of Vegetation Science 8(1): 5-12. (3)http://www.fleppc.org/FNGA/FNGA_Pressrelease.htm [Accessed 28 April 2008] (4)http://www.env.gov.sc/html/alien_invasive_species__plants.html [Accessed 28 April 2008] (5)Horvitz, C. C., J. B. Pascarella, S. McMann, A. Freedman and R. H. Hofstetter. 1998. Functional Roles of Invasive Non-Indigenous Plants in Hurricane-Affected Subtropical Hardwood Forests. Ecological Applications 8(4): 947-974. (6) Binggeli, P., J.B. Hall, and J.R. Healey. 2008. The Overstory 89. Available from http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory89.html [Accessed 28 April 2008] (7)Kueffer, C. and Vos, P. 2004. Case Studies on the Status of invasive Woody Plant Species in the Western Indian Ocean: 5. Seychelles. Forest Health & Biosecurity Working Papers FBS/4-5E. Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. (8)HILL, M. J., TERENCE M. VEL', K. HOLM, S. J. PARR and
N. J. SHAH. 2002. North Island. Pp. 177-201 in M.J. Hill, ed. BIODIVERSITY SURVEYS AND CONSERVATION POTENTIAL OF INNER SEYCHELLES ISLANDS. ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN NO. 495. NATIONAL MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION WASHINGTON, D.C. U.S.A. (9)Vielle, M. 2003. Management priorities for Seychelles - a basis for discussions. Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on invasive alien species and terrestrial ecosystem rehabilitation in Western Indian Ocean Island States, Seychelles, 13-17 October 2003: sharing experience, identifying priorities and defining joint action, 2003 (10)Langeland, K.A. and R.K. Stocker. 2001. Control of Non-native Plants in Natural Areas of Florida. SP 242. Department of Agronomy, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.

3.03

No evidence

3.04

Most references refer to A. macrophylla's potential to alter native communities, but with little or no documented evidence of impact. Until studies demonstrate negative impacts, it will be scored for Question 3.02 only.

3.05

(1)A. constricta listed as weed, but with no documentation of impacts.

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/alstonia_constricta/ [Accessed 28 April 2008]

4.01

(1)No evidence

(1)http://www.fna.org/china/mss/volume16/Apocynaceae.published.pdf [Accessed 28 April 2008]

4.02

No evidence [well studied species of forestry]

4.03

No evidence

4.04

Unknown (1) It is interesting that the goats eat Alstonia, the milky pine, which has a whitish sap containing an alkaloid, which is very bitter to the human taste [Goats eat a related species, Alstonia scholaris, with alkaloids in sap]

(1)Dunson, W. A. 1974. Some aspects of salt and water balance of feral goats from arid islands. American Journal of Physiology 226(3): 662-669.

4.05

(1)Toxic in large doses, Alstonia spp. Are subject to legal restrictions in some countries. (2)The Pälawan utilize at least eight different vegetable species for fish-poisoning: ‘bägna’, ‘mäglangutän’, ‘mälägisa’ (Croton tiglium),‘bäsak’ (Alstonia macrophylla),‘känumäj’ (Diospyros multiflora),‘ulam’ (Barringtonia racemosa),‘tuba’ (Derris elliptica), and ‘lagtang’ (Arcangelisia flava (?)). Depending on the species, bark, fruits, roots or leaves are pounded and placed where the river current is slow. The pounded substance releases some toxic components, which have the effect of stunning or even killing fish and amphibians."

(1)Khare, C.P., ed.2003. Indian Herbal Remedies. Rational Wester Therapy, Ayurvedic and Other Traditional Usage, Botany. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. (2)http://www.coconutstudio.com/Eco-Friendly%20Poisons.htm [Accessed 30 April 2008]

4.06

Unknown

4.07

Unknown whether contact with sap will cause allergic reaction or poisoning, but plants contain poisonous alkaloids in sap that are used medicinally. (1)Apocynaceae: This family is almost cosmopolitan but chiefly tropical with some representatives in the temperate zones. It is noted for many ornamentals...Many are toxic. The Apocynaceae is probably the most thoroughly investigated family for alkaloidal plants; about 1000 of these compounds have been isolated from its many members...Many of the species recognized as alkaloidal by other investigators were confirmed as such:...Alstonia macrophylla

(1)Raffauf, R. F. 1996. Plant Alkaloids: A Guide to Their Discovery and Distribution. Haworth Press, Binhamton, NY.

4.08

No evidence [Unlikely, considering habitat] (1)Alstonia macrophylla(tree): Wet and Intermediate zones [invades forests which are unlikely to carry fire]

(1)Weerawardane, N. D. R. and J. Dissanayake. 2005. Status of forest invasive species in Sri Lanka. Pp. 114-120 in McKenzie, P., Brown, C., Jianghua, S., and Jian, W. (eds.). The unwelcome guests. Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific forest invasive species conference. Kunming, Yunnan Province, China 17 - 23 August 2003. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS.

4.09

(1)Abstract: The main objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of different levels of shade and water availability on tree seedling growth and on some related physiological parameters. The five tree species were selected to represent two early successional species (i.e. Alstonia macrophylla...Alstonia had the highest relative growth rates under all shade x water regime combinations whereas Azadiracta had the lowest.

(1)De Costa, W. A. J. M. and M. F. Rozana. 2000. Effects of shade and water stress on growth and related physiological parameters of the seedlings of five forest tree species. Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka Volume 28(1): 43-62.

4.10

(1)Usually on ridges and hillsides with sandy to clayey soils. Also growing on ultrabasic and limestone soils. (2)Soil descriptors
- Soil texture: light; medium
- Soil drainage: free
- Soil reaction: acid; neutral
- Special soil tolerances: shallow; infertile

(1)http://www.nationaalherbarium.nl/sungaiwain/Apocynaceae/Alstonia_macrophylla.htm [Accessed 28 April 2008] (2)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

4.11

(1)No evidence

(1)http://www.fna.org/china/mss/volume16/Apocynaceae.published.pdf [Accessed 28 April 2008]

4.12

Unknown

5.01

Terrestrial

5.02

Apocynaceae

5.03

Apocynaceae

5.04

Tree

6.01

No evidence

6.02

(1)Seeds acute but not acuminate at one end, obtuse at the other. (2)The germination of 43 tree species native to the lowland forests of Malaysia was monitored on forest soil in trays placed in closed-canopy forest, an artificial forest gap, and a large clearing...Non-pioneer species exhibited a variety of responses to the different habitats...Alstonia...germinated equally well in the forest understorey and in the clearing in at least one experiment.

(1)Dassanayake, M. D., gen. ed. 1983. A revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon. Vol IV. Amerind Pub. Co., New Delhi. (2)Raich, J. W. and G. W. Khoon. 1990. Effects of Canopy Openings on Tree Seed Germination in a Malaysian Dipterocarp Forest. Journal of Tropical Ecology 6(2): 203-217.

6.03

Unknown

6.04

(1)Alstonia scholaris…Self-seeding [Related species with similar reproductive biology] (2)Reproductive type, pollination. Fertile flowers hermaphrodite. Unisexual flowers absent. Plants hermaphrodite.

(1)Llamas, K. A. 2003. Tropical Flowering Plants. A Guide to Identification and Cultivation. Timber Press. Portland, OR. (2)http://florabase.dec.wa.gov.au/browse/profile/21927 [Accessed 30 April 2008]

6.05

(1)Alstonia plumosa var. communis visited by a noctuid moth. (2)Pollination is by insects; when flowering, butterflies and bees often surround trees. [Related taxa do not require specialist pollinators]

(1)Kato, M. and A. Kawakita. 2004. Plant-pollinator interactions in New Caledonia influenced by introduced honey bees. American Journal of Botany 91:1814-1827. (2)http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/Sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=201 [Accessed 30 April 2008]

6.06

Unknown

6.07

Unknown (1)Among the suggested species Alstonia macrophylla (Hawarinuga) has recently become popular due to its fast growth rate, ease of establishment and timber value. [probably less than 4 years]

(1)Bandara and Subasinghe. 2008. Construction of a Precise Growth Model to Predict Individual Stem Volume of Alstonia macrophylla Wa.. Ex. G. Don. Forstry and Environment Symposium 2005, Sri Lanka. Available from http://forestrysymposium2005.blogspot.com/2006/08/construction-of-precise-growth-model.html

7.01

Unlikely, as seeds are almost 1 cm long

7.02

(1)Land use, environmental and service aspects: Descriptors: agroforestry; revegetation; soil conservation; erosion control; hedges

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

7.03

Unlikely, as seeds are almost 1 cm long

7.04

(1)Fruits ca. 280 mm long, green, dehiscent follicles, which are placed in pairs and filled with many wind dispersed hairy seeds.

(1)http://www.nationaalherbarium.nl/sungaiwain/Apocynaceae/Alstonia_macrophylla.htm [Accessed 28 April 2008]

7.05

Unknown

7.06

(1)Fruits ca. 280 mm long, green, dehiscent follicles, which are placed in pairs and filled with many wind dispersed hairy seeds.

(1)http://www.nationaalherbarium.nl/sungaiwain/Apocynaceae/Alstonia_macrophylla.htm [Accessed 28 April 2008]

7.07

No indication that hairs enable seeds to adhere to animals externally

7.08

Unknown

8.01

(1)A medium to large tree, it reaches height of 25 m and a diameter of 30 m…Seeds per fruit range from three to 62, with each seed measuring 4-5 mm x 1-2 mm…Seed count 365,000/kg

(1))Dayan, M., R. S. Reaviles and D. B. Bandian. 2006. INDIGENOUS FOREST TREE SPECIES IN LAGUNA PROVINCE. DENR Recommends Volume 15a. Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau Department of Environment and Natural Resources College, Laguna 403. Available from http://erdb.denr.gov.ph/publications/denr/denr_v15a.pdf [Accessed 28 April 2008]

8.02

(1)- Seed storage orthodox (2)Seeds with 10.5% MC can be stored at room temperature for six months with 76% germination. It was observed that beyond six months, germination started to decline and 0% germination was noted after the 9th month of storage.

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. (2)Dayan, M., R. S. Reaviles and D. B. Bandian. 2006. INDIGENOUS FOREST TREE SPECIES IN LAGUNA PROVINCE. DENR Recommends Volume 15a. Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau Department of Environment and Natural Resources College, Laguna 403. Available from http://erdb.denr.gov.ph/publications/denr/denr_v15a.pdf [Accessed 28 April 2008]

8.03

No information on success rate of control efforts. (1)Treatment: Basal bark application of 10% Garlon 4 or cut stump application of 50% Garlon 3A.

(1)Langeland, K.A. and R.K. Stocker. 2001. Control of Non-native Plants in Natural Areas of Florida. SP 242. Department of Agronomy, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.

8.04

(1)Silvicultural characteristics descriptors - Tolerates drought; fire; wind; weeds - Ability to regenerate rapidly; self-prune; coppice

(1)CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

8.05

Unknown