Alpinia zerumbet (Pers.) Burtt & R.M. Sm. Family - Zingiberaceae. Common Names(s) - Shell Ginger. Synonym(s) - Alpinia speciosa (Wendl.) K. Schum.

Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated?

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range?

y=-2, ?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

2

0

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

10

Notes

Source

1.01

(1)The species is probably indigenous in New Guinea or some neighboring part of eastern Malesia, but it has long been in cultivation and now occurs in most tropical countries [cultivated for a long period of time, but no evidence that selection has substantially modified the species]

(1)Smith, A. C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis Nova. A New Flora of Fiji (Spermatophytes Only). Volume 1. Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden. Lawai, HI.

1.02

1.03

2.01

(1)The species is probably indigenous in New Guinea or some neighboring part of eastern Malesia, but it has long been in cultivation and now occurs in most tropical countries [native range somewhat vague but well within tropical regions] (2)General distribution: Native of Asia, cultivated for ornament in the tropics and subtropics worldwide.

(1)Smith, A. C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis Nova. A New Flora of Fiji (Spermatophytes Only). Volume 1. Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden. Lawai, HI. (2)Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. and M. T. Strong. 2005. Monocotyledons and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 52: 415 pages.

2.02

Native and naturalized distribution well within tropics and subtropics.

2.03

(1)Hardiness: USDA Zone 9a: to -6.6 °C (20 °F) USDA Zone 9b: to -3.8 °C (25 °F) USDA Zone 10a: to -1.1 °C (30 °F) USDA Zone 10b: to 1.7 °C (35 °F) USDA Zone 11: above 4.5 °C (40 °F) (2)Altitude: Sea level to 1200 m or more. [distribution in Costa Rica >1000m] (3)Hardiness: USDA zone 7 - 11. [root hardy across 5 USDA hardiness zones]

(1)http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/55244/ [Accessed 27 May 2008] (2)Gargiullo, M. B., B. Magnuson and L, Kimbal. 2008. A Field Guide to Plants of Costa Rica. Oxford University Press. New York, NY. (3)http://www.tropilab.com/shellflower.html [Accessed 02 June 2008]

2.04

(1)The species is probably indigenous in New Guinea or some neighboring part of eastern Malesia, but it has long been in cultivation and now occurs in most tropical countries (2)General distribution: Native of Asia, cultivated for ornament in the tropics and subtropics worldwide.

(1)Smith, A. C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis Nova. A New Flora of Fiji (Spermatophytes Only). Volume 1. Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden. Lawai, HI. (2)Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. and M. T. Strong. 2005. Monocotyledons and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 52: 415 pages.

2.05

(1)The species is probably indigenous in New Guinea or some neighboring part of eastern Malesia, but it has long been in cultivation and now occurs in most tropical countries. (2)General distribution: Native of Asia, cultivated for ornament in the tropics and subtropics worldwide.

(1)Smith, A. C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis Nova. A New Flora of Fiji (Spermatophytes Only). Volume 1. Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden. Lawai, HI. (2)Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. and M. T. Strong. 2005. Monocotyledons and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 52: 415 pages.

3.01

(1)Alpinia zerumbet (Pers.) B.L. Burtt & R.M. Sm. New naturalized record This collection represents the first documented record of this widely cultivated species as having naturalized in the state of Hawai‘i...naturalized on stream banks forming scattered clumps, ca 6 m (2)Evidence of naturalization? Yes (3)In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, only A. zerumbet is known to spread outside cultivation.(4)About 200 species, most of which are native to southeast Asia. Alpinia zerumbet (Shell ginger) has become naturalised in southern Africa.

(1)Flynn, T. and D. H. Lorence. 2002. Additions to the flora of the Hawaiian Islands. Pp. 14-16 in N. L. Evenhuis and L. G. Eldredge (eds.). Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 69. (2)Foxcroft, L. C., D. M. Richardson and J. R. U. Wilson. 2008. Ornamental Plants as Invasive Aliens: Problems and Solutions in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Environmental Management 41:32–51. (3)Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. and M. T. Strong. 2005. Monocotyledons and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 52: 415 pages. (4)http://www.biodiversityexplorer.org/plants/zingiberaceae/ [Accessed 28 May 2008]

3.02

No evidence

3.03

No evidence

3.04

(1)Second category alien plants. Species which are regarded as priority species in the KNP...Although species may be ranked as a second priority and will only be removed once the first priority species have been removed, these species are no less important than the first priority species. The aim of the prioritization is to prevent plants that may possibly escape in the near future from doing so as well as in an effort not to remove all plants from gardens in one clearing operation. [Alpinia zerumbet listed as a second category plant for removal in Kruger National Park, South Africa without listing of any current negative effects] (2)Alpinia zerumbet included in a picture identification booklet entitled "Alien Invasive Plants In Kruger National Park" [no mention of impacts or whether it is just a potential invader of native ecosystems]

(1)http://www.sanparks.org/parks/kruger/conservation/scientific/ff/alien_biota/policies/KNP%20village%20policy%20draft_2_July%202002.pdf [Accessed 28 May 2008] (2)http://www.sanparks.org/parks/kruger/conservation/scientific/ff/alien_biota/layout.pdf [Accessed 02 June 2008]

3.05

(1)Several species of Alpinia are listed as environmental weeds [no evidence of impacts]

(1)http://www.hear.org/gcw/scientificnames/scinamea.htm [Accessed 02 June 2008]

4.01

(1)No evidence

(1)Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. and M. T. Strong. 2005. Monocotyledons and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 52: 415 pages.

4.02

(1)Searching for novel allelochemicals is an important task for the development of bioactive herbicides and pesticides. Novel phytotoxins that have strong bioactive effects at low concentration and are able to be obtained in great quantities should be targeted. Many kinds of allelochemicals, such as amino acids, phenolics, fatty acids, alkaloids, and momilactones, have been identified. So far, mimosine in Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala), 7,8-dihydro-dehydroxykavain in Alpinia (Alpinia zerumbet), lactones in Kava (Piper methysticum), and saponins in alfalfa (Medicago sativa) are the most promising detected substances. The search for other bioactive allelochemicals is continuing. (2)Allelochemicals isolated from Alpinia zerumbet, and Ananas comosus var. Cayenne (pine apple) were also examined for their biological impact on fungi. 7,8-dihydro-5,6-dehydrokavain (DDK) isolated from Alpinia and its derivative dimethyl phosphorothionate exhibited the greatest antifungal activitity; 91% and 72% against Corticium rolfsii and Pythium spp., respectively. [Allelopathic effects on fungi] (3)Abstract: A plant growth inhibitor, dihydro-5,6-dehydrokawain, has been isolated from previous termAlpinianext term speciosa leaves. Its chemical structure was elucidated from spectroscopic data and by synthesis. This compound caused a 35% reduction in hypocotyl length of lettuce seedling compared to the control at 25 ppm, etiolation at 100 ppm and necrosis at 200 ppm. Subsequently, we synthesized some related compounds. Among these, 4-methoxy-6-(m-chlorophenethyl)-2H-pyran-2-one was much more active, causing a 66% growth retardation at 25 ppm. [A. speciosa is a synonym for A. zerumbet; experimental evidence with concentrated extracts, but not natural conditions]

(1)TRAN DANG KHANH, TRAN DANG XUAN, DUONG VAN CHIN, ILL MIN CHUNG, ELZAAWELY ABDELNASER ABDELGHANY and SHINKICHI TAWATA. 2006. Current status of biological control of paddy weeds in Vietnam. Weed Biology and Management 6: 1–9.(2)Xuan, T. D. 2005. Utilization of plant allelopathy for biological control of weeds and plant pathogens in rice. Available from http://www.regional.org.au/au/allelopathy/2005/2/4/2612_xuantd.htm [Accessed 02 June 2008](3)Fujita, T., H. Nishimuraa, K. Kaburagib and J. Mizutani. 1994. Plant growth inhibiting a-pyrones from Alpinia speciosa. Phytochemistry 36: 23–27.

4.03

No evidence

4.04

Unknown [no information on palatability to animals]

4.05

(1)Alpinia zerumbet is not poisonous. For what you are concerned about (cats) there shouldn't be any concern over any ginger leaves (referring to the true gingers, zingiberaceae). Several gingers' leaves are used in cooking etc. as well other parts of the plants. [comment from grower]

(1)http://forums.gardenweb.com/forums/load/ginger/msg0219573612788.html [Accessed 02 June 2008]

4.06

(1No serious insect or disease problems. (2)Pest resistance: no serious pests are normally seen on the plant (3)Abstract: A range of plant species that are either cultivated, naturalised or indigenous to sub-tropical eastern Australia and are also able to sustain feeding by Pentalonia nigronervosa, the vector of banana bunchy top virus (BBTV), were investigated as possible hosts of the virus. Alocasia brisbanensis, Alpinia arundelliana, Alpinia caerulea, Alpinia zerumbet, Canna indica, Colocasia esculenta, Hedychium coronarium and Heliconia psittacorum cv. Red Parakeet were aphid-inoculated with BBTV and none became systemically infected. Furthermore, no BBTV was detected in surveys of field plants of Alocasia brisbanensis, Alpinia caerulea, Canna indica, Canna generalis, Canna orchiodes, Colocasia esculenta and Strelitzia reginae found growing in or near banana plantations affected by BBTV. It is therefore -concluded that hosts other than Musa spp. probably do not play a role as reservoirs of BBTV in Australia.

(1)http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/Plant.asp?code=A483 [Accessed 27 May 2008] (2)http://hort.ifas.ufl.edu/shrubs/ALPZERA.PDF [Accessed 27 May 2008] (3)Geering, A. D. W. and J.E. Thomas. 1997. Search for alternative hosts of banana bunchy top virus in Australia. Australasian Plant Pathology 26(4) 250 - 254.

4.07

Unknown [evidence from related species suggests possibility] (1)Alpinia zerumbet (Pers.) Burt. ex R. M. Smith ("colônia") had the second highest UV (1.6). This species is frequently used as an ornamental plant in home gardens. Its main medicinal uses are to treat coughs (flower, leaf, and/or a root syrup), and headaches (a lightly heated leaf is applied to the forehead) [internal and external medicinal use of plants well-documented, unlikely to be poisonous or cause allergies](2)Native to eastern Asia, it is one of the species in which the leaves are used in the wrapping of zongzi (Chinese rice dumplings). [Used for food wrapping which suggests no toxicity] (3)Alpinia has been used for many years as Okinawan traditional food, although there is no report about the deleterious effects on human health and environmental safety. (4)The toxicity of Alpinia zerumbet is unknown. Other members of the Alpinia genus have produced symptoms... This is not a highly toxic houseplant. Most reactions will be limited to mild skin or eye irritation...Since most symptomatic cases occur after handling the leaves, stems or roots, gardeners and floral workers are more at risk than the average homeowner.

(1)Luiz Rodrigo Saldanha Gazzaneo, Reinaldo Farias Paiva de Lucena and Ulysses Paulino de Albuquerque. 2005. Knowledge and use of medicinal plants by local specialists in an region of Atlantic Forest in the state of Pernambuco (Northeastern Brazil). Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 1(9): 1-8. (2)http://www.ubcbotanicalgarden.org/potd/flowering_plants_19/ [Accessed 02 Junw 2008] (3)Tawata, S. and F. Deba. 2007. Tropical plants as a source for rational insecticides. Entomological Research 37 (Suppl. 1): A11–A73. (4)Spoerke Jr., D. G. 1990. Toxicity of Houseplants. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.

4.08

Succulent plant of typically wet environment

4.09

Don't know [references to partial shade are insufficient evidence to answer yes](1)Shell Flower grows moderately fast in fertile, moist soil, doing best in wind-sheltered locations in partial shade to sun.(2)tolerant of a wide range of light conditions from light shade to full sun, so long as there is adequate moisture. Part shade is ideal for this plant. (3)sunny or partially shaded places are preferred.

(1)http://hort.ifas.ufl.edu/shrubs/ALPZERA.PDF [Accessed 27 May 2008] (2)http://www.floridata.com/ref/A/alpi_zer_var.cfm [Accessed 02 June 2008] (3)Whistler, W. A. 2000. Tropical Ornamentals. A Guide. Timber Press. Portland, OR.

4.10

(1)Soil tolerances: occasionally wet; slightly alkaline; clay; sand; acidic; loam

(1)http://hort.ifas.ufl.edu/shrubs/ALPZERA.PDF [Accessed 27 May 2008]

4.11

Not a vine

4.12

(1)This lush, coarse-textured, clumping evergreen is planted for its heavy rosette of arching stems and green leaves arising from a large loose center…A wonderful, dense foliage display is created when planted in mass on three to five-foot centers...Propagation is by division of the crowded clumps. (2)Shelter from wind when first planting but it will soon form a dense clump that protects itself.(3)Zingiberaceae Alpinia zerumbet (Pers.) B.L. Burtt & R.M. Sm.New island record A popular ornamental and widely cultivated, shell ginger was recently reported to be naturalized on Kaua`i (Flynn & Lorence 2002: 16). The collector’s notes indicate the voucher specimen cited was made in lowland secondary forest composed of mainly naturalized tree species near sea level. The following vouchers document this species outside of cultivation on West Maui , and were collected in areas dominated by native vegetation. Although not yet widespread, this is a serious weed where it occurs, forming dense monotypic thickets like other naturalized species in this family. Its use as an ornamental should be strongly discouraged, and removal of cultivated plants should also be considered if they occur near suitable habitats in natural areas. Dispersal mechanism is unknown, but Staples et al. (2000: 31) listed other Alpinia species as vegetatively propagating or possibly bird dispersed. Both methods are likely in this case since plants were observed growing on seemingly inaccessible ledges. Aquatic dispersal is also apparently occurring along streams. Material examined. Maui: West Maui , Lahaina Distr., Pu`uki, Ke`ali`i Gulch, 732m, 14 Mar 2007, Oppenheimer H30709; Kahoma Stream, locally common, forming thickets on stream banks, shady slopes, and open sunny ledges, 658m, 19 Jun 2007, Oppenheimer H60718.

(1)http://hort.ifas.ufl.edu/shrubs/ALPZERA.PDF [Accessed 27 May 2008] (2)http://heartgarden.com.au/description.asp?id=160 [Accessed 02 June 2008] (3)Oppenheimer, H. L. (in prep). Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers.

5.01

Terrestrial

5.02

Zingiberaceae

5.03

Zingiberaceae

5.04

Spreads by rhizomes [see 6.06]

6.01

No evidence

6.02

(1)Capsule subglobose, ca. 2 cm in diam., ribbed, vermillion; seeds angled.(2)Fruit a red, globose, many-seeded capsule…Propagate by rhizome division or seeds.

(1)Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. and M. T. Strong. 2005. Monocotyledons and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 52: 415 pages. (2)Whistler, W. A. 2000. Tropical Ornamentals. A Guide. Timber Press. Portland, OR.

6.03

Unknown [No evidence of natural hybridization but possibility that hybridization can occur] (1)individuals may be seedling variants or plants of hybrid origin, possibly involving A. formosana, a variable species with erect glabrous (or sparsely hairy) inflorescences and glabrous (or marginally fringed) leaves.

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora: Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI.

6.04

Unknown (1)The protandrous morph of Alpinia zerumbet, which is male in the morning and female in the afternoon, and the protogynous morph, in which the reverse sequence of sex expression occurs. (2)Field experiments indicate that A. kwangsiensis is self-compatible and dependent upon insects for fertilization. This newly reported floral mechanism, which we have named “flexistyly,” adds to the repertoire of devices that have evolved in flowering plants to insure outcrossing.[related species self-compatible]

(1)Barrett, S. C. H. 2002. The Evolution of Plant Sexual Diversity. Nature Reviews Genetics 3: 274-284.(2)Q.-J. Li, W. J. Kress, Z.-F. Xu, Y.-M. Xia, L. Zhang, X.-B. Deng and J.-Y. Gao. 2002. Mating system and stigmatic behaviour during flowering of Alpinia kwangsiensis (Zingiberaceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution 232(1-2): 123-132.

6.05

(1)Large bees (Euglossine, Centris and Bombus) are found to be the pollinators of the flower of Alpinia zerumbet (2)most alpinias are pollinated by large bees

(1)KITTIPANANGKUL, N. and C. NGAMRIABSAKUL. 2006. Pollen and Pollinator Limitation of Seed Initiation in Etlingera littoralis (J. König) Giseke (Zingiberaceae) in Klong Klai Basin, Khao Nan National Park, Thailand. Walailak J Sci & Tech 3(2): 207-217. (2)Kress, W. J., A.-Z. Liu, M. Newman and Q.-J. Li. 2005. The molecular phylogeny of Alpinia (Zingiberaceae): a complex and polyphyletic genus of gingers. American Journal of Botany 92:167-178.

6.06

(1)Propagate by rhizome division or seeds. (2)creeping rhizome

(1)Whistler, W. A. 2000. Tropical Ornamentals. A Guide. Timber Press. Portland, OR (2)http://www.trionursery.com/?p_id=17& [Accessed 02 June 2008]

6.07

(1)Plants will not flower until the second year (they bloom on old growth)

(1)http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/Plant.asp?code=A483 [Accessed 27 May 2008]

7.01

Probably not, as the seeds do not have any means of attachment

7.02

(1)'This majestic beauty is probably the most widely planted Alpiniaspecies in warmer regions."

(1)Riffle, R. L. 1998. The Tropical Look. An Encyclopedia of Dramatic Landscape Plants. Timber Press. Portland, OR.

7.03

Unlikely, as seeds are relatively large (0.1")

(1)Staples, G. W. and D. R. Herbst. 2005. A Tropical Garden Flora: Plants Cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and Other Tropical Places. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu, HI.

7.04

No adaptation to wind dispersal

7.05

[No information on seed buoyancy, but ability to grow along stream banks suggests possibility of water dispersal] (1)Tolerance to wet soil makes it an excellent streamside plant. (2)Zingiberaceae
Alpinia zerumbet (Pers.) B.L. Burtt & R.M. Sm. New island record
A popular ornamental and widely cultivated, shell ginger was recently reported to be naturalized on Kaua`i (Flynn & Lorence 2002: 16). The collector’s notes indicate the voucher specimen cited was made in lowland secondary forest composed of mainly naturalized tree species near sea level. The following vouchers document this species outside of cultivation on West Maui , and were collected in areas dominated by native vegetation. Although not yet widespread, this is a serious weed where it occurs, forming dense monotypic thickets like other naturalized species in this family. Its use as an ornamental should be strongly discouraged, and removal of cultivated plants should also be considered if they occur near suitable habitats in natural areas. Dispersal mechanism is unknown, but Staples et al. (2000: 31) listed other Alpinia species as vegetatively propagating or possibly bird dispersed. Both methods are likely in this case since plants were observed growing on seemingly inaccessible ledges. Aquatic dispersal is also apparently occurring along streams.
Material examined. Maui: West Maui , Lahaina Distr., Pu`uki, Ke`ali`i Gulch, 732m, 14 Mar 2007, Oppenheimer H30709; Kahoma Stream, locally common, forming thickets on stream banks, shady slopes, and open sunny ledges, 658m, 19 Jun 2007, Oppenheimer H60718.

(1)http://hort.ifas.ufl.edu/shrubs/ALPZERA.PDF [Accessed 27 May 2008] (2)Oppenheimer, H. L. (in prep). Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers.

7.06

(1)"the fruits are subglobose and red" (2)Fruit red, becoming dry, splitting open to reveal seeds with fleshy appendage.(3) Do not allow birds to get to them, for they will eat and disperse them.

(1)Smith, A. C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis Nova. A New Flora of Fiji (Spermatophytes Only). Volume 1. Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden. Lawai, HI. (2)Gargiullo, M. B., B. Magnuson and L, Kimbal. 2008. A Field Guide to Plants of Costa Rica. Oxford University Press. New York, NY. (3)http://dynamics.org/Altenberg/PROJECTS/ALPINIA/ [Accessed 27 May 2008]

7.07

No means of external attachment

7.08

(1)"the fruits are subglobose and red" (2)Fruit red, becoming dry, splitting open to reveal seeds with fleshy appendage.(3) Do not allow birds to get to them, for they will eat and disperse them.

(1)Smith, A. C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis Nova. A New Flora of Fiji (Spermatophytes Only). Volume 1. Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden. Lawai, HI. (2)Gargiullo, M. B., B. Magnuson and L, Kimbal. 2008. A Field Guide to Plants of Costa Rica. Oxford University Press. New York, NY. (3)http://dynamics.org/Altenberg/PROJECTS/ALPINIA/ [Accessed 27 May 2008]

8.01

(1)One shell ginger plant produces at least 1000 seeds per square foot. The seeds are bird dispersed. The seedlings can mature in shade or full sun, in topsoil or lithified sand.

(1)http://dynamics.org/Altenberg/PROJECTS/ALPINIA/ [Accessed 27 May 2008]

8.02

Unknown [no information on seed banks]

8.03

Unknown [no information on control of this species]

8.04

(1)Hardiness: USDA Zones 9-11; can withstand some frost, but stems may be killed by a freeze and will resprout. (2)Even if leaves are damaged and frozen by frost, it will vigorously regrow the next spring. (3)The matted clumps of this plant can be divided for propagation. Dig the plant any time and break the clumps apart with your hands. The stems can be removed or left on the rhizome which can be planted in a new location.

(1)http://www.tcpalm.com/news/2008/apr/25/plant-profile/ [Accessed 02 Junw 2008] (2)http://coolexotics.com/plant-486.html [Accessed 02 June 2008] (3)Horticopia Professional Version 4.1. 2004. Horticopia Inc. Purcellville, VA.

8.05

Unknown