Answer

Score

1.01

Is the species highly domesticated? (If answer is 'no' then go to question 2.01)

y=-3, n=0

n

0

1.02

Has the species become naturalized where grown?

y=-1, n=-1

1.03

Does the species have weedy races?

y=-1, n=-1

2.01

Species suited to tropical or subtropical climate(s) (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) – If island is primarily wet habitat, then substitute “wet tropical” for “tropical or subtropical”

See Append 2

2

2.02

Quality of climate match data (0-low; 1-intermediate; 2-high) see appendix 2

2

2.03

Broad climate suitability (environmental versatility)

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.04

Native or naturalized in regions with tropical or subtropical climates

y=1, n=0

y

1

2.05

Does the species have a history of repeated introductions outside its natural range? y=-2

?=-1, n=0

y

3.01

Naturalized beyond native range y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2), n= question 2.05

y

2

3.02

Garden/amenity/disturbance weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

2

3.03

Agricultural/forestry/horticultural weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4

3.04

Environmental weed y = 2*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

y

4

3.05

Congeneric weed y = 1*multiplier (see Append 2)

n=0

n

0

4.01

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.02

Allelopathic

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.03

Parasitic

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.04

Unpalatable to grazing animals

y=1, n=-1

y

1

4.05

Toxic to animals

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.06

Host for recognized pests and pathogens

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.07

Causes allergies or is otherwise toxic to humans

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.08

Creates a fire hazard in natural ecosystems

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.09

Is a shade tolerant plant at some stage of its life cycle

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.10

Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions (or limestone conditions if not a volcanic island)

y=1, n=0

y

1

4.11

Climbing or smothering growth habit

y=1, n=0

n

0

4.12

Forms dense thickets

y=1, n=0

y

1

5.01

Aquatic

y=5, n=0

n

0

5.02

Grass

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.03

Nitrogen fixing woody plant

y=1, n=0

n

0

5.04

Geophyte (herbaceous with underground storage organs -- bulbs, corms, or tubers)

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.01

Evidence of substantial reproductive failure in native habitat

y=1, n=0

n

0

6.02

Produces viable seed.

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.03

Hybridizes naturally

y=1, n=-1

6.04

Self-compatible or apomictic

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

6.05

Requires specialist pollinators

y=-1, n=0

n

0

6.06

Reproduction by vegetative fragmentation

y=1, n=-1

y

1

6.07

Minimum generative time (years) 1 year = 1, 2 or 3 years = 0, 4+ years = -1

See left

<1

1

7.01

Propagules likely to be dispersed unintentionally (plants growing in heavily trafficked areas)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.02

Propagules dispersed intentionally by people

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.03

Propagules likely to disperse as a produce contaminant

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.04

Propagules adapted to wind dispersal

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.05

Propagules water dispersed

y=1, n=-1

y

1

7.06

Propagules bird dispersed

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.07

Propagules dispersed by other animals (externally)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

7.08

Propagules survive passage through the gut

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.01

Prolific seed production (>1000/m2)

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.02

Evidence that a persistent propagule bank is formed (>1 yr)

y=1, n=-1

n

-1

8.03

Well controlled by herbicides

y=-1, n=1

y

-1

8.04

Tolerates, or benefits from, mutilation, cultivation, or fire

y=1, n=-1

y

1

8.05

Effective natural enemies present locally (e.g. introduced biocontrol agents)

y=-1, n=1

Total score:

21

1.01

Despite this species' long history in its native and invaded habitats, there is no evidence of divergence between cultivated and wild populations. (1)"Tree-of-heaven was first introduced to America by a gardener in Philadelphia, PA, in 1784, and by 1840 was commonly available from nurseries. The species was also brought into California mainly by the Chinese who came to California during the goldrush in the mid-1800s. Today it is frequently found in abandoned mining sites there. The history of ailanthus in China is as old as the written language of the country." (2)"From China, written names for Ailanthus altissima can be found dating back at least to 100 BC. The Chinese name ‘ch’un-shu’ means spring tree"

(1)Plant Conservation Alliance's Alien Plant Working Group Weed Gone Wild: Alien Plant Invaders of Natural Areas. May 2005. Fact Sheet: Tree of Heaven. On-line at: http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/pdf/aial1.pdf (2)Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

1.02

Answer not scored because conditions for scoring (1.01 must = y) were not met

1.03

Answer not scored because conditions for scoring (1.01 must = y) were not met

2.01

Native range subtropical (1)"The native range of recent Ailanthus altissima covers large parts of China, where the species grows as a natural component of broadleaf forests. It occurs in a range from Liaoning and Hebei Province in the north to Guangxi and Fujian Province in the South, and from Zhejiang and Shandong in the East to Gansu Province in the West. "

(1)Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

2.02

Native range well known

2.03

(1)"In North America, it grows across a broad range of climatic conditions from Florida, to the arid Southwest and the temperate Northeast at elevations <1600 m in the Denver region and <2100 m in New Mexico. In the temperate Himalayas, Ailanthus grows at 1500–1800 m, and <500 m on the Azores. In temperate Europe, Ailanthus is virtually confined to the lowlands and to low mountain ranges with more favorable climates, such as the Rhine valley. In the Mediterranean, Ailanthus occurs <1000 m, e.g. at 1012 m in Vytina, Greece, 800 m in Korfu on the northern slope of the Pancratos, and up to 800 m in Montenegro's Lovcen Mountains. In China, var. sutchuensis occurs between 700 and 2500 m."

(1)Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

2.04

Native range subtropical (1)"The native range of recent Ailanthus altissima covers large parts of China, where the species grows as a natural component of broadleaf forests. It occurs in a range from Liaoning and Hebei Province in the north to Guangxi and Fujian Province in the South, and from Zhejiang and Shandong in the East to Gansu Province in the West. "

(1)Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

2.05

Widely cultivated as an ornamental

3.01

(1)"Ailanthus has developed a secondary range on all other continents except Antarctica with a broad latitudinal range from the temperate to meridional zones. It is most frequent in the meridional and submeridional zones. Both, the native and secondary ranges match well climatic conditions characterized by a long and warm growing season, regular winter frost and annual precipitation of mostly >500 mm."

(1)Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

3.02

(1)"All over the temperate to meridional zones, Ailanthus colonizes a broad array of urban habitats ranging from walls, fence rows, cracks of sidewalks, and road and railroad embankments to abandoned lots and urban parks. In Italy, it is among the most common alien species occurring in the urban flora of different phytoclimatic regions. Hegi (1906) reported first spontaneous occurrences for Germany from derelict urban sites. In many Central European cities, as well as in London, an abundant colonization began on sites that were opened up by bombing in World War II. In Berlin and Vienna, Ailanthus today is closely associated with built-up areas, green spaces and railway areas"

(1)Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

3.03

Yes, affects both forestry and agriculture (1)"Ailanthus can invade borders of agricultural fields, meadows, vineyards and old fields. In the studied part of southern France, the majority of populations within the rural landscape grew along roads, and from there also encroached into agricultural fields and near-natural shrub communities by clonal growth … In Europe, Ailanthus invades riparian forests as well as some mesic and xeric woodlands, preferentially in the submeridional to meridional zones (see below). The species can (co-)dominate pioneer forests on urban sites. In temperate North America, hemlock, oak-hickory and maple-birch forests are also subject to invasions, mostly subsequent to disturbances. These may be human-induced, such as timber harvests or management of other non-natives specie, or can result from natural gap openings due to heavy storms or insect herbivory on native species ... Invasions of forests and river banks have been reported in floodplains of the Danube, and along streams and riverbeds in the Insubrian region of southern Switzerland, in southwestern France, the Mediterranean, Japan, and North America."

(1)Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

3.04

An environmental weed in temperate forests of the northeastern US (1)"Our results showed that Norway maple and tree of heaven alter the functioning of temperate forest ecosystems even at relatively low densities by increasing cycling rates (i.e., net N mineralization, net nitrification, Ca mineralization) and nutrient availability (i.e., pH, Ca, Mg, K, N)" (2)"It is a serious threat to ecosystems in introduced areas, as the plant is very competitive, and also contains allelopathic chemicals that may inhibit growth of surrounding native plants."

(1)Gomez-Aparicio, L. and C.D. Canham. 2008. Neighborhood models of the effects of invasive tree species on ecosystem processes. Ecological Monographs 78(1): 69-86 (2)Ding, J., Y. Wu, H. Zheng, W. Fu, R. Reardon and M. Liu. 2006. Assessing potential biological control of the invasive plant, tree-of-heaven, Ailanthus altissima. Biocontrol Science and Technology 16(6): 547-566

3.05

This is a small genus (<5 species). None are listed as weeds (1)

(1)Randall, R.P. 2002. A Global Compendium of Weeds. Shannon Books, Melbourne, Victoria. 905 pages

4.01

No. (1)"Stems have gray bark and show shallow diamond-shaped fissures with age"

(1)Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

4.02

(1)"Our results suggest that the production of allelochemical compounds by the invasive tree A. altissima has important negative effects on seedling growth of dominant native tree species in these forests."

(1)Neighbourhood analyses of the allelopathic effects of the invasive tree Ailanthus altissima in temperate forests

4.03

Not among the parasitic plant genera (1)

USDA Animal Plant Health Inspection Service Staff. 2008. Parasitic Plant Genera List

4.04

(1)"Although browsed, tree-of-heaven is not reported as preferred browse for ungulate species. The bark and leaves contain saponins, quassinoids, and other bitter compounds that may discourage consumption. Small animal use of tree-of-heaven is largely unknown. One old-field study in New York showed white-footed mice preferred browsing eastern white pine, sugar maple, and white ash over tree-of-heaven." (2)"A altissima bark was rejected as a feed when offered under pen conditions." (3)"Ailanthus is browsed by large mammals, e.g. white-tailed deer in North America, but usually less than other tree species. This is believed to be a competitive advantage in forests with high deer populations … Ostfeld et al. (1997) studied effects of rodents on the survival of tree seeds and seedlings invading old fields in eastern North America. The mouse Peromyscus leucopus, a major seed predator, avoided Ailanthus seeds. The vole Microtus pennsylvanicus, a major seedling predator, fed on Ailanthus seedlings, but preferred native tree species."

(1)USDA Forest Service. Webpage: Fire Effects Information Species List. Accessed 2008. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/ (2)Bourke, C.A. 1996. Lack of toxicity of Ailanthus altissima (tree-of-heaven) for goats. Australian Veterinary Journal 74 (6): 465–465 (3)Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

4.05

(1)"Ingestion of tree-of-heaven by livestock has been anecdotally associated with mortalities since at least 1911. Following deaths in sheep in 1926, after restricted access to this plant at Wagga Wagga and Gundagai, New South Wales, Carne in the same year carried out a pen feeding trial with the bark of the plant. No details were provided, but no toxicity was observed … The results of this investigation suggest that goats should be able to ingest considerable amounts of A altissima leaf and stem material for long periods without ill effect, and that repeated small daily intakes of bark should have no ill effect."

(1)Bourke, C.A. 1996. Lack of toxicity of Ailanthus altissima (tree-of-heaven) for goats. Australian Veterinary Journal 74 (6): 465–465

4.06

(1)"Pest resistance: long-term health usually not affected by pests" (2)"Herbivores and pathogens Outside of its native range, Ailanthus is usually subject to a low herbivore pressure, which has been attributed to the chemical composition of its tissues. Its resistance to the invasive beetle Anoplophora glabripennis, for example, is due to toxic effects of -pinene, β-pinene and -terpinene in the bark and leaves."

(1)Gilman, E.F. and D.G. Watson. 1993. Ailanthus altissima Tree-of-Heaven Fact Sheet. U.S. Forest Servive Department of Agriculture Fact Sheet ST-67 (2)Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

4.07

(1)"the pollen of Ailanthus needs to be considered as a possible allergenic source, and its extract should be introduced in the diagnostic screening panels in areas where this tree is widespread."

(1)Ballero, M., A. Ariu, P. Falagiani and G. Piu. 2003. Allergy to Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven) pollen. Allergy 58(6): 532-533

4.08

(1)"Possessing large, pinnate leaves with a high surface-to-volume ratio and often, many dead branches, tree-of-heaven has good potential for crowning fire behavior … Flammability of tree-of-heaven is not reported in the literature as of this writing. Its growth habit and stand structure suggest that once ignited, tree-of-heaven stands probably burn easily. The trees have large, finely divided leaves that provide a surface-to-volume ratio favorable for ignition and burning. The trees produce prodigious litter, not only from the large leaves, but also from broken branches in all size classes. Downed woody fuels are common in tree-of-heaven stands. The brittle branches break easily even when green, and branch die-back from drought or frost is common"

(1)USDA Forest Service. Webpage: Fire Effects Information Species List. Accessed 2008. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/

4.09

(1)"Light requirement: tree grows in part shade/part sun; tree grows in full sun" (2)"both species are reported to be shade-intolerant (A. altissima & L. tulipifera)"

(1)Gilman, E.F. and D.G. Watson. 1993. Ailanthus altissima Tree-of-Heaven Fact Sheet. U.S. Forest Servive Department of Agriculture Fact Sheet ST-67 (2)Kota, N.L., R.E. Landenberger and J.B. McGraw. 2007. Germination and early growth of Ailanthus and tulip poplar in three levels of forest disturbance. Biological Invasions 9(2):197-211

4.10

(1)"Soil tolerances: clay; loam; sand; acidic; occasionally wet; alkaline; well-drained. Drought tolerance: high Aerosol salt tolerance: moderate Soil salt tolerance: good"

(1)Gilman, E.F. and D.G. Watson. 1993. Ailanthus altissima Tree-of-Heaven Fact Sheet. U.S. Forest Servive Department of Agriculture Fact Sheet ST-67

4.11

Not a woody vine or liana

4.12

(1)"A dense stand of Ailanthus altissima was found along the shoreline at Jug Bay Wetlands Sanctuary on the freshwater tidal Patuxent River in Anne Arundel County, Maryland" (2)"Ailanthus forms dense, clonal thickets that displace native species."

(1)Kiviat, E. 2004. Occurrence of Ailanthus altissima in a Maryland Freshwater Tidal Estuary. Castanea 69(2): 139–142 (2)Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council. Website: Invasive Plant Manual Tree-of-Heaven. Accessed 2008. http://www.se-eppc.org/manual/ailanthus.html

5.01

Terrestrial

5.02

Not a grass

5.03

Not N-fixing

5.04

Not a geophyte

6.01

No evidence

6.02

(1)"Seeds sprout easily and seedlings usually invade surrounding land … Propagation is by seed and suckers."

(1)Gilman, E.F. and D.G. Watson. 1993. Ailanthus altissima Tree-of-Heaven Fact Sheet. U.S. Forest Servive Department of Agriculture Fact Sheet ST-67

6.03

Unknown

6.04

(1)"The small, green, male and female flowers are produced on separate trees and appear in dense, terminal clusters." (2)"Ailanthus is a dioecious tree. Female flowers may have stamina, but these do not contain pollen. Other authors suggested that flowers might also be bisexual or the trees monoecious, but empirical data on the occurrence and proportion of flower types in populations are missing. Nooteboom and Hu never observed bisexual flowers. Possibly, some authors address female flowers with sterile stamina as bisexual or ‘hermaphrodite’. The yellowish-green inflorescences are arranged in a large double thyrsus at the end of new shoots. Male inflorescences are larger and produce more flowers than those on a female plant.

(1)Gilman, E.F. and D.G. Watson. 1993. Ailanthus altissima Tree-of-Heaven Fact Sheet. U.S. Forest Servive Department of Agriculture Fact Sheet ST-67 (2)Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

6.05

Trees visited by honeybees (1)"In addition, Ailanthus functions as food for honeybees; the honey is tasty"

Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

6.06

(1)"Already as a seedling, Ailanthus develops several lateral roots and a taproot, where most carbohydrate and protein reserves are stored. Roots at soil depths between 0 and at least 100 cm have several (only in part macroscopically visible) preexisting primordia or suppressed buds that easily form root suckers. These can emerge from root fragments as small as 1 cm in length and a few millimeters in width. Lazarevic et al. (1961) observed root connections between densely sown seedlings."

Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

6.07

(1)"Of 40 progeny grown from seed collected in February and sown in March, 1971, 16 exhibited flowers at a very early age (six weeks after germination)."

(1)Feret, P.P. 1973. Early Flowering in Ailanthus. Forest Science 19:237-339

7.01

No, based on the size of the fruit (a samara; a winged seed) and its cultivation for ornamental purposes. (1)"In North America, samara size ranges from 8 to 12 mm in width and 33 to 48 mm in length. From Belgium, Geerinck (1990) reported lengths of 35–60 mm"

Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

7.02

(1)"The superior range expansion of Ailanthus on all continents except Antarctica has been facilitated by a world-wide human-mediated transfer of seeds over the last 250 years and subsequent cultivation for a broad array of uses. Ailanthus was first introduced to France by the French missionary Pierre d’Incarville in the 1740s who sent seeds from Nanking to Paris. From there, Ailanthus, often confounded with the varnish tree Rhus verniciflua, was brought early to London and to other parts of Europe. It was first introduced from European seed sources to North America via Philadelphia in 1784. In the late 19th century, Chinese immigrants are believed to have introduced Ailanthus to the West Coast because of its cultural significance."

Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

7.03

No, based on the size of the fruit (a samara; a winged seed) and its cultivation for ornamental purposes. (1)"In North America, samara size ranges from 8 to 12 mm in width and 33 to 48 mm in length. From Belgium, Geerinck (1990) reported lengths of 35–60 mm"

Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

7.04

Fruit is a samara (winged seed) (1)"After flowering, the carpels develop into five (or one to four) samaras. The samaras are spirally twisted with one centrally placed seed. Their color varies from greenish yellow to reddish brown. The embryo lacks an endosperm, but has two large cotyledons with stored oils" (2)"Turbulent winds appear to be necessary for seed release, as indicated by a wind tunnel experiment. A. altissima is able to disperse long distances into fields and into mature forests, and can reach canopy gaps and other suitable habitats at least 100 in from the forest edge. It is an effective disperser and can spread rapidly"

(1)Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237 (2)Landenberger, R.E., N.L. Kota and J.B. McGraw. 2007. Seed dispersal of the non-native invasive tree Ailanthus altissima into contrasting environments. Plant Ecology 192: 55–70

7.05

(1)"Land managers should be aware of the potential of Ailanthus altissima to invade estuarine shorelines" (2)"We analyzed how water-mediated dispersal rather than the more expected wind-mediated dispersal can affect the establishment of the invasive tree Ailanthus altissima in riparian corridors by changing the germination rate and velocity and by providing the option of a new pathway of vegetative propagation. "

(1)Kiviat, E. 2004. Occurrence of Ailanthus altissima in a Maryland Freshwater Tidal Estuary. Castanea 69(2): 139–142 (2)Kowarik, I and I. Säumel. 2008. Water dispersal as an additional pathway to invasions by the primarily wind-dispersed tree Ailanthus altissima. Plant Ecology (On Line First publication)

7.06

Discussions of dispersal regarding this species do not mention bird dispersal. In addition the shape of the fruit (a dry winged seed) does not indicate bird dispersal(1).

(1)Landenberger, R.E., N.L. Kota and J.B. McGraw. 2007. Seed dispersal of the non-native invasive tree Ailanthus altissima into contrasting environments. Plant Ecology 192: 55–70

7.07

Fruit is a samara (winged seed) with no means of external attachment (1)

(1)Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237

7.08

Propagules primarily wind-dispersed(1)

(1)Landenberger, R.E., N.L. Kota and J.B. McGraw. 2007. Seed dispersal of the non-native invasive tree Ailanthus altissima into contrasting environments. Plant Ecology 192: 55–70

8.01

(1)" The number of seeds per kilogram averages from 27,000 to 33,000" (2)"mature adults can produce 325,000 one-seeded, 4-cm samaras/individual/growing season; with a survival rate of nearly 2%, about 7000 seedlings/individual emerge successfully each season and further spread invasion"

(1)Kowarik, I. and I. Saumel. 2007. Biological flora of Central Europe: Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8(4): 207-237 (2)Meloche, C. and S.D. Murphy. 2006. Managing Tree-of-Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) in Parks and Protected Areas: A Case Study of Rondeau Provincial Park (Ontario, Canada). Environmental Management 37(6): 764-772

8.02

(1)"The fact that even a small percentage of A. altissima seeds remained viable long enough to germinate the following growing season in the intact forest has implications beyond the effects of light quality, quantity and the germination substrate. This observation demonstrates that A. altissima exhibits at least a short term seed bank of one year in closed canopy forest. Viability may exceed one year, so quantification of the actual longevity of viable A. altissima seed is an important question to be resolved."

(1)Kota, N.L., R.E. Landenberger and J.B. McGraw. 2007. Germination and early growth of Ailanthus and tulip poplar in three levels of forest disturbance. Biological Invasions 9(2):197-211

8.03

(1)"Foliar sprays applied when trees are in full leaf are very effective, and should be the method of choice where ailanthus size and distribution allow effective spray coverage of all foliage without unacceptable contact with nearby desirable vegetation or applicator." (2)"Cut stump treatment with imazapyr and triclopyr (20% v/v in oil) resulted in more than 90% reduction in both vigor ratings and resprouting of single steins and clumps. These results provide several effective options for the control of tree-of-heaven in both urban and riparian sites." (3)"we recommend cut stump and herbicide treatments for managing juvenile shoots of Ailanthus altissima."

(1)Plant Conservation Alliance's Alien Plant Working Group Weed Gone Wild: Alien Plant Invaders of Natural Areas. May 2005. Fact Sheet: Tree of Heaven. On-line at: http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/pdf/aial1.pdf (2)DiTomaso, J.M. and G.B. Kyser. 2007. Control of Ailanthus altissima using stem herbicide application techniques. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 33(1): 55-63 (3)Meloche, C. and S.D. Murphy. 2006. Managing Tree-of-Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) in Parks and Protected Areas: A Case Study of Rondeau Provincial Park (Ontario, Canada). Environmental Management 37(6): 764-772

8.04

(1)"Cutting alone is usually counter-productive because ailanthus responds by producing large numbers of stump sprouts and root suckers." (2)"Fire is not among the recommended control methods for tree-of-heaven. Anecdotal information suggests that it sprouts vigorously after fire damage; certainly, its regeneration strategies suggest that it is a disturbance-adapted species. Capable of rapid growth even under adverse conditions, tree-of-heaven shows best growth with the increased nutrient and open canopy conditions that fire creates."

(1)USDA Forest Service. Webpage: Fire Effects Information Species List. Accessed 2008. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/

8.05

There are on-going investigations into biocontrol for this species, but no evidence that these are present in Hawaii (1)"Our literature surveys revealed that 46 phytophagous arthropods, 16 fungi, and one potyvirus were reported attacking tree-of-heaven, some apparently causing significant damage in China. Two weevils, Eucryptorrhynchus brandti and E. chinensis, are major pests of the plant in China and are reportedly restricted to tree-of-heaven, showing promise as potential biological control agents. Nymphs and adults of a homopteran insect, Lycorma delicatula and larvae of two lepidopteran species, Samia cynthia and Eligma narcissus, may also cause severe damage, but they are not host specific. "

(1)Ding, J., Y. Wu, H. Zheng, W. Fu, R. Reardon and M. Liu. 2006. Assessing potential biological control of the invasive plant, tree-of-heaven, Ailanthus altissima. Biocontrol Science and Technology 16(6): 547-566