Echinochloa colona (L.) Link, Poaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results:  Reject, score: 9 (Go to the risk assessment)

Common name(s): [more details]

Bontoc: tumi

Chamorro: chaguan-agaga

English: awnless barnyard grass, birds rice, corn panic grass, Deccan grass, jungle rice, jungle ricegrass, little baryard grass, millet-rice, pigeon millet, shama millet, short millet, swampgrass

French: blé du Dekkan, herbe de Greslan, herbe de riz, herbe sifflette

Ilocano: dukayang

Other: riz de jungle

Palauan: uaum

Samoan: sefa

Spanish: arrocillo, camalote, champa, grama de verano, grama pintada, hualcacho, liendre de puerco, paja de apto, pasto colorado, pasto del arroz, pata de conejo, zacate de agua, zacate pinto

Tagalog: pulang puit

Tongan: matala‘ulie, muhuku‘apopoa

Habit:  grass

Description:  "Tufted annual up to 60 cm tall; culms prostrate to subascending, branched, glabrous, nodose; sheaths smooth; ligule obsolete; blades 4-20 cm long, 3-8 mm wide; inflorescence slender, 5-10 (-15) cm long, of 4-several racemes, these 1-2 cm long, spreading, or somewhat steeply ascending, subdistant; rachis finely scabrid; spikelets crowded, in 4 rows, subelliptic, 2.5-3 mm long, greenish or purplish; pericels very short, finely scabrid; first glume hispidulous, ovate, acute 1.2-1.5 mm long 3-nerved; second glume 2.5-3 mm long, 7-nerved; sterile lemma similar to second glume, with a palea; fertile lemma 2 mm long, ovate, glossy; caryopsis 1.7-2 mm long, whitish"  (Stone, 1970; p. 212).

Illustration by International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) courtesy Ecoport.

Description from GrassBase.

Habitat/ecology:  "A common weed of ditches and moist ground in warmer regions of the world" (Wiggins & Porter, 1971; p. 848).

On Guam, weedy in wet or swampy places, near marshes, around waterpipes, etc. (Stone, 1970; p. 212).  In Hawai‘i, "naturalized in wet or seasonally wet, disturbed areas, 0-280 m" (Wagner et al., 1999; p. 1535).  In Fiji, "occurs from sea level to about 200 m in wet places such as rice fields, roadsides, river banks, shores of ponds, the inner edges of mangrove swamps, old clearings, etc." (Smith, 1979; p. 341).  In New Caledonia, "localement commun en stations humides dans le Sud de la Grande-Terre" (MacKee, 1994; p. 59). "Common in sunny disturbed places and croplands" (Whistler, 1988; p. 51).

Propagation:  Seed

Native range:  "Widespread throughout the tropics of Asia and Africa and apparently of early occurrence in tropical America" (Smith, 1979; p. 341).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ofu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2001) (voucher ID: PTBG 35356) Taxon name on voucher: Echinochloa colona (L.) Link
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1990) Vouchers cited: Whistler 1348, Whistler 3323
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 91)
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island		Anon. (1988) (p. 1)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Rota Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 40)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Saipan Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 40)
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US) Northern Mariana Islands	Tinian Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 40)
Cook Islands Northern Cook Islands	Pukapuka Atoll		McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Aitutaki Atoll		McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Mangaia Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 345) Taxon name on voucher: Echinochloa colona
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Ma‘uke Island		McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Cook Islands Southern Cook Islands	Miti‘aro Island		McCormack, Gerald (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Floreana Group	Floreana Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) San Cristóbal Group	San Cristóbal Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santa Cruz Group	Santa Cruz Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Ecuador (Galápagos Islands) Santiago Group	Santiago Island	introduced invasive	Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Weno (Moen) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 40)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 40)
Federated States of Micronesia Kosrae Island	Kosrae Island	introduced invasive	Josekutty, P. C./Wakuk, E. E./Joseph, M. J. (2002) (p. 62)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 40)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island		Glassman, S. F. (1952) (pp. 127-128) Voucher cited: Glassman 2427 (US)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Ulithi Atoll	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 40)
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 40)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kambara Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kanathea Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kandavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341) Voucher cited: DA 9066
Fiji Fiji Islands	Koro Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Lakemba Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Matuku Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Mbatiki Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Moala Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Moturiki Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Nayau Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Ngau Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341) Voucher cited: Smith 7968
Fiji Fiji Islands	Rambi Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341) Voucher cited: DA 5768
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341) Voucher cited: DA 8893
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341) Vouchers cited: DA 5022, Smith 6660, Smith 6633, DA 3128, DA 8847, Smith 334
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Mbalavu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vatulele Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 31A, DA 8249, DA 8148, DA 7999, DA 8661, DA 7862, DA 8075, DA 8402, DA 426, DA 7534, DA 7765, DA 8460, DA 307, DA 7438
Fiji Fiji Islands	Wailagi Lala (Wailangilala) Atoll	introduced invasive	Smith, Albert C. (1979) (p. 341) Voucher cited: DA 3454
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Fatu Hiva Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Hiva Oa Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Nuku Hiva (Nukahiva) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Marquesas Islands	Ua Pou (Huapu, Uapou, Uapu) Island	introduced invasive	Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. (2008)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Bora Bora Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 335) Voucher cited: Grant 4169
French Polynesia Society Islands	Maupiti (Maurua) Island	introduced invasive	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. (1987) (p. 12) Voucher cited: Fosberg 64790 (US)
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 335) Voucher cited: Florence 2211
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 335) Voucher cited: Moore 121
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 335) Vouchers cited: Grant 4162, Grant 4169, BRY 26044
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced invasive	Stone, Benjamin C. (1970) (p. 212) Vouchers cited: Stone 3935 (GUAM), Stone 4079 (GUAM)
Guam Guam Island	Guam Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 40)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1535)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaho‘olawe Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1535)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1535)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Lāna‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1535)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1535)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Moloka‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1535)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Ni‘ihau Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1535)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (p. 1535) Voucher cited: Nuttall s. n. (BISH)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	introduced	Kato, Hidetoshi (2007)
Marshall Islands Ralik Chain	Kwajalein (Kuwajleen) Atoll	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A./Steele, O. (1999) (p. 84) Voucher cited: Whistler 11181
Nauru Nauru Island	Nauru Island	introduced invasive	Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. (1994) (p. 70) Vouchers cited: Scully 150N (US?), Thaman & Manner 155 (SUVA)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 91)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	Tassin, Jacques (2005)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	introduced invasive	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (p. 59) Voucher cited: Brousmiche 674
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 51) Voucher cited: Sykes 1250
Palau Palau (main island group)	Angaur Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 40)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 101)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 40)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 97)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1981) (voucher ID: BNM 3136) Taxon name on voucher: Echinochloa colonum (L.) Link
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1978) (voucher ID: BNM 10160) Taxon name on voucher: Echinochloa colonum (L.) Link.
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 40)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 97)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 59) Voucher: Lorence 9714 (PTBG, BNM, NY, US)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Malakal Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2008) (voucher ID: PTBG 7) Taxon name on voucher: Echinochloa colona
Palau Rock Islands	Aulupse‘el Island	introduced	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1987) (p. 40)
Palau Rock Islands	Ngeremdiu Island	eradicated invasive	Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie (2009) (p. 7) One specimen found, pulled and disposed of. Voucher: Lorence 9885 (PTBG, BNM, NY, US)
Palau Rock Islands	Ngeremdiu Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2008) (voucher ID: PTBG 178) Taxon name on voucher: Echinochloa colona (L.) Link
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)		Waterhouse, D. F. (1997) (p. 61)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 65, 77)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 51)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 91)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 70)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Ha‘apai Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 99) Voucher cited: Soakai 297
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 99) Voucher cited: Soakai 984 (EI)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (pp. 61-62) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15468
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 99) Vouchers cited: Lawrence 94, Lawrence 173, Ilolahia 53
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (pp. 61-62) Vouchers cited: Hürlmann 110, Hürlmann 315, Yuncker 15156, Yuncker 15183
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Niuafo‘ou Island		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 51)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 99) Voucher cited: Soakai 768
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 91)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 51)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	New South Wales	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 45)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 45)
Cambodia Cambodia	Cambodia (Kingdom of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 65, 77)
Chile (continental) Chile	Chile (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 45)
China China	China (People's Republic of)		Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar (1980) (p. 54)
Colombia Colombia	Colombia (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 45)
Ecuador (Mainland) Ecuador	Ecuador (Republic of) (continental)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 133)
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 65, 77)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)		Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. (1979) (p. 133)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 65, 77)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 46)
Negara Brunei Darussalam Brunei	Brunei (Negara Brunei Darussalam)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 65, 77)
Nicaragua Nicaragua	Nicaragua (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 46)
Perú Perú	Perú (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 46)
Singapore Singapore	Singapore (Republic of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 65, 77)
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island		Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 46)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 65, 77)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	introduced invasive	Waterhouse, D. F. (1993) (pp. 65, 77)

Indian Ocean
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia (Indian Ocean offshore islands) Christmas Island Group	Christmas Island	introduced	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1993) (p. 20)
Mauritius Mautitius Islands (Mauritius and Rodrigues)	Mauritius Island	introduced invasive	Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. (1977) (p. 46)

Additional information:
Additional online information about Echinochloa colona is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Echinochloa colona as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Echinochloa colona may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Anon. 1988. Weed list for American Samoa by cropping system. Checklist dated 07/13/88, origin unknown. 3 pp.

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1978. Voucher specimen #BNM10160(Otobed, D.O. P-10160).

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1981. Voucher specimen #BNM3136(Timberlake, J. 3136).

Cardenas, Juan/Reys, Carlos E./Doll, Jerry D./Pardo, Fernando. 1972. Tropical weeds; malezas tropicales, vol. 1. International Plant Protection Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 341 pp.

Charles Darwin Foundation. 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Charles Darwin Foundation, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Charles Darwin Research Station. 2005. CDRS Herbarium records.

Fosberg, F. R./Otobed, D./Sachet, M.-H./Oliver, R. L./Powell, D. A./Canfield, J. E. 1980. Vascular plants of Palau with vernacular names. Department of Botany, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, M.-H. 1987. Flora of Maupiti, Society Islands. The Smithsonian Institution. Atoll Research Bulletin 294:1-70.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. Micronesica 20:1-126.

Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1-152.

Hafliger, Ernst/Scholz, Hildemar. 1980. Grass weeds, vol. 1. CIBA-GEIGY Ltd., Basle, Switzerland. 142 pp. + plates.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Holm, Leroy G./Plucknett, D. L./Pancho, J. V./Herberger, J. P. 1977. The world’s worst weeds: distribution and biology. East-West Center/University Press of Hawaii. 609 pp.

Holm, Leroy/Pancho, Juan V./Herberger, James P./Plucknett, Donald L. 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.

Josekutty, P. C./Wakuk, E. E./Joseph, M. J. 2002. Invasive/weedy angiosperms in Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia. In: Invasive species and their management. Micronesica Suppl. 6:61-65.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Lorence, David H./Wagner, Warren L. 2008. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. Online database.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

McCormack, Gerald. 2008. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust, Rarotonga.

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2001. Voucher specimen #PTBG35356(David H. Lorence 8652).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2002. Voucher specimen #PTBG345(Tim Flynn 7006).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2008. Voucher specimen #PTBG7(David H. Lorence 9714).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2008. Voucher specimen #PTBG178(David H. Lorence 9885).

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1993. Flora of Australia. Vol. 50, Oceanic islands 2. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Smith, Albert C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 1. 494 pp.

Space, James C./Lorence, David H./LaRosa, Anne Marie. 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on Invasive Plant Species. USDA Forest Service, Hilo, Hawai‘i. 227 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Stone, Benjamin C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6:1-659.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Tassin, Jacques. 2005. Jacques Tassin (IAC-CIRAD), personal communication.

Thaman, R. R./Fosberg, F. R./Manner, H. I./Hassall, D. C. 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin 392:1-223.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2009. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Waterhouse, D. F. 1993. The major arthropod pests and weeds of agriculture in Southeast Asia. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. 141 pp.

Waterhouse, D. F. 1997. The major invertebrate pests and weeds of agriculture and plantation forestry in the Southern and Western Pacific. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. 93 pp.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 69 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1990. The weeds of Manu‘a [unpublished checklist]. 18 pp.

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